Beyond Imagination

The Ethics and Applications of Nanotechnology and Bio-Economics in South Africa

Zamanzima Mazibuko

• Publisher: The Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection (MIST
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9780639986685
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Nanotechnology & MEMS
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Nanotechnology is sweeping the world. This science of very small particles, which includes genetic modification and the reconfiguring of the arrangement of atoms, presents possibilities beyond imagination. It also has huge implications for all South Africans, especially at home. How exactly is this new technology playing out in South Africa? In countries like India, nanotechnology is being supported as a source of income and innovation. It has the potential to improve both the human condition and a countrys productivity and competitiveness. Is South Africa doing what it should and could to foster nanotechnology and biotechnology, and to advance bioeconomies within the country? And what does the new technology mean for us as consumers? How many of us know that this technology is already being employed in substances like suntan cream and lipstick, with potential health implications for users? The application of nanotechnology poses risks as well as huge benefits, so we need to be particularly vigilant of the ethics and dangers of it. This book provokes discussion around these important topics and relays eyeopening information to those of us who thought all of this was sci-fi.

ONE

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The advancement of nanotechnology

A sustainable development or an untenable vision?

ZAMANZIMA MAZIBUKO

THE EVOLUTION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

NANOTECHNOLOGY ALLOWS for the manipulation of matter at the level of individual atoms and molecules which results in the construction of materials, devices and systems with new characteristics and applications made possible by their small structure (Staggers et al, 2008). The term nanotechnology is derived from the prefix ‘nano’ in nanometer (nm), which is one billionth of a metre and is approximately the width of 10 hydrogen atoms. A nanoparticle is defined as a collection of approximately 10–10⁵ atoms attached to each other with a radius between 1 and 100 nm (Bhushan, 2007). The main expressed motive for developing nanotechnology is to accelerate progress towards better healthcare, increase productivity and sustainable development.

Nanotechnology controls structures to atomic precision where every atom is positioned accordingly for the most favourable function of the nano-structure. Such technology has enormous potential: it could result in the use of fewer resources and energy and a reduction in the waste produced from manufacturing, as well as the development of new methods to convert energy and filter water, for example.

The concept of employing atomic precision in technology was first mentioned in 1959 at the California Institute of Technology by physicist and Nobel Laureate Professor Richard Feynman in his visionary talk, ‘There’s plenty of room at the bottom’ (Feynman, 1960). In this talk Feynman disclosed his high-tech vision of miniaturisation of extreme proportions. He proposed that if atoms could be rearranged in any way we wished, while still being consistent with the laws of physics and chemistry, many devices could function at extremely efficient levels. He gave an example of computers and how they filled up an entire room because of their large size and yet were not able to store enough information to, for instance, select a method of analysis which would be better than the one it was programmed to use. He also pointed out that there was no machine that could recognise a face that it had been shown previously, if the picture was not exactly the same as before. To make a device that had these features, among others, would require a large amount of material, an excessive amount of heat and power, and the machine would still not perform at a desirable speed. Feynman anticipated that faster computers would need to be made extraordinarily smaller. He believed was this was highly possible as there was no law in physics that disputed this and that there was ‘plenty of room to make them smaller’ (Feynman, 1960). Although miniaturisation is a concept that had been perceived as being around for a very long time, the meticulous manipulation of the atomic structure that Feynman described was considered innovative.

The term ‘nanotechnology’ was, however, first proposed by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in 1974. Taniguchi described nanotechnology as the ‘processes of separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule’ (Taniguchi, 1974).

Twenty-seven years after the talk by Feynman, a book by K Eric Drexler titled Engines of Creation (Drexler, 1986) used the term nanotechnology to describe Feynman’s vision and made it a more attractive and popular concept. Drexler predicted the endless possibilities that could potentially flow from the use of nanotechnology; the manufacturing of assembly machines smaller than living cells and the production of materials that are more durable yet are on a miniature scale. Drexler envisaged nanotechnology to be able to improve spacecrafts, repair living cells, heal diseases and allow humans to have stronger and faster bodies. He anticipated that nanotechnology would facilitate the conception of molecular machines that were so small and therefore so efficient that they could not only create materials capable of transforming our physical environment, but also advance the activities in that environment. These molecular machines or ‘nanorobots’ would be programmed to accomplish atomic precision, placing each atom into a specific arrangement, as per Feynman’s vision. Drexler later referred to the vision that included these molecular machines as molecular manufacturing which he stated was ‘a process of construction based on atom-by-atom control of product structures which may use assemblers (or more specialised mechanisms) to guide a sequence of chemical reactions’ (Drexler, 2003).

Drexler saw nanotechnology as the solution to most, if not all, of the problems faced by the human race and predicted it would create a whole new world. Drexler’s forecasts about the future role of nanotechnology laid the basis for the direction research inevitably took, essentially, technological determinism. Nanotechnology’s foundation is pinned on the future more than it is on the present. It pushes the limits of human agency, but without societal buy-in and absorption into society advances cannot easily be made. The view that Drexler and Feynman held of nanotechnology has been classified as molecular nanotechnology (MNT), which differentiates it from nanotechnology that does not consider atomic precision. The promise that MNT has presented has attracted some scepticism and criticism. The science community distinguishes Feynman’s vision from Drexler’s, claiming that Drexler’s idea is farfetched and is not technologically feasible.

The spokesperson for the US National Nanotechnology Initiative, Professor Richard Smalley, has been one of the biggest sceptics of the Feynman vision of nanotechnology. He was cited as dismissing Feynman’s vision, stating that it is doubtful that MNT would be possible without ‘magic fingers’ to assemble devices by placing atoms in specific positions with precision (Smalley, 2001). Drexler’s vision of nanotechnology was a long-term concept which would only produce tangible results decades after research commenced. Conversely, the focal point of the development of nanotechnology by the science community has deviated slightly to more attainable and instant targets; targets that do not include the creation of molecular machines in order to produce nanodevices. This deviation has resulted in the inclusion of some technologies under the umbrella definition of nanotechnology which would have been excluded under Drexler’s conception. He has, however, claimed that molecular machines are an extension of Feynman’s vision and not a deviation as reported (Drexler 2003).

The appeal of nanotechnology, especially to society, was mostly what Drexler envisioned and reported on. However, scientists and technologists think it is an impossible target especially with the time frame set by funders. Scientists and technologists currently use the term nanotechnology to refer to an applied science in which a material of nanoscale size exhibits characteristics that are different from the bulk material. A material that is reduced to a size below 100 nm shows distinct changes in properties (Lane & Kalil, 2005). These characteristics could be a difference in tolerance to temperature and pressure, conductivity, strength, elasticity and reactivity. The change in how the material reacts when it is at a much smaller scale allows nanotechnology to produce faster, cheaper, lighter, safer, cleaner and more defined solutions.

Scale-based definitions of nanotechnology also incorporate existing techniques and processes, but within a much smaller range. Descriptions of this nature apply to several companies that manufacture products using reactions at a small scale, such as catalyst production. These companies define their production as nanotechnology, thus making nanotechnology a much more expansive technology than initially perceived. Definitions of nanotechnology, some determined by government organisations, have evidently expanded over the years. Essentially, nanotechnology was initially designated solely as technology. However, at present commercial aspects are included in the definition of nanotechnology, and society has had an impact on the trajectory of the new technology.

ANCIENT NANOTECHNOLOGY:
HOW FAR BACK DOES NANOTECHNOLOGY ACTUALLY GO?

Nanotechnology is not an entirely new notion. Chemistry, for example, is concerned with the organising of atoms into larger molecules, which can be combined to form polymers. Biology demonstrates atomic precision in the key molecules crucial to life and this can be seen in a cell which is made up of an accurate arrangement of atoms that form protein molecules that fold their long chains into specific molecules that have particular functions. These molecules are able to form large complexes of molecules that combine to form subcellular components in accordance with the information encoded in their precise sequences.

Aside from natural nanoscale reactions, chemical synthesis of nanoparticles has existed for many years. Some of the earliest evidence of the use of nanotechnology dates back more than 4000 years ago in Africa where ancient Egyptians initiated lead-based chemistry for cosmetic applications such as hair dyes (Walter et al, 2006) and black eye makeup (which was used to treat or prevent eye illnesses) (Tapsoba et al, 2010; Loyson, 2011). For hair dyes, a blend of lead oxide (PbO) and slaked lime (lime mixed with water to produce calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂)) (Dei & Salvadori, 2006), with a small amount of water to form a paste, was applied on the hair. The deposition of galena/lead sulphide (PbS) crystals throughout the chemical reaction results in the blackening of the hair. The sulphur contained in the reaction originates from the amino acids of hair keratins and the lead is present in the paste that precipitates on the hair shafts. Lead-based chemistry has been shown to result in the formation of galena nanocrystals which are approximately 5 nm in size and have similar physical features to PbS quantum dots synthesised by modern techniques (Walter et al, 2006).

Moreover, clay minerals, which make up elements of soil particles smaller than 2 µm, were used as natural nanomaterials with many applications, including bleaching wool and clothes and, further, to remove oil from clothes (Rytwo, 2008). This specific application of clay is reported to date from 5000 BC in Cyprus (Rytwo, 2008). In China, between the 6th and 7th century AD, kaolin (a distinct, fine plastic clay) was used as a raw material to manufacture porcelain with a diameter of less than 0.4 mm (Yanyi, 1987; Rytwo, 2008). Clay was also used for medicinal purposes across the globe by people near the Dead Sea (Essenians), people in Africa, South America, Australia and elsewhere, who supplemented their diets with clay and also used it to assist in healing. In addition, clay was used worldwide in cosmetic applications (Rytwo, 2008).

In another example, the Maya (indigenous people of Mesoamerica) produced Maya blue, which is the bright turquoise colour seen in Mayan artefacts (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2016) first produced approximately in the 8th century AD (Chiari et al, 2008). The Mayans were able to create a crucial technique that bound indigo dye to a clay mineral substrate. Maya blue is able to resist potent nitric acid, alkali and organic solvents and still maintain its colour as well as withstand years of exposure to humid conditions (Chiari et al, 2008). Modern technology has been able to illuminate how the Mayans were able to create this technology. The presence of palygorskite (clay mineral) in Maya blue was observed using X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), followed by the use of infrared spectroscopy to detect indigo (found in the plant Indigofera suffruticosa), thus confirming that Maya blue is a complex of the two elements. It was established that the mixture of indigo and palygorskite had to be heated to 100°C to produce Maya blue (Chiari et al, 2008). An analysis which drew on transmission electron microscopy (TEM) proposed that nanoscale iron (Fe), titanium (Ti) and manganese (Mn) impurities found in Maya blue samples may affect its appearance (Chiari et al, 2008).

Furthermore, gold and silver nanoparticles have been found on colourful Roman glass cups manufactured in the 4th century AD (Freestone et al, 2007). The Lycurgus cup, an elaborate and sophisticated Roman vessel, is green in reflected light but turns red in transmitted light. The presence of minute amounts of gold and silver were observed using microanalysis. Similar to Maya blue, the mere presence of certain elements is not enough to produce these unique characteristics in the colour. TEM technology revealed the presence of miniature metal particles (50–100 nm), while analysis by XRPD confirmed the particles to be a nanoscaled silver-gold complex, with a ratio of silver to gold of about 7:3 and an additional 10% copper (Freestone et al, 2007).

There are several other examples of metal nanoparticles being used to create unique colour features in ancient objects. Churches built in Rome between the 4th and 20th century AD are adorned with mosaic glass tiles, some of which are opaque-pinkish in colour for faces, hands and feet. The presence of colloidal gold nanoparticles between 10 and 35 ppm (parts per million) gives these tiles their colour (Veritã & Santopadre, 2010). However, between the 16th and 13th century BC, Egyptian glassmakers were already using nanoparticles to give glass high technical and aesthetic qualities. Egyptian glassmakers opacified opaque white, blue and turquoise glasses by using calcium antimonite crystals diffused in a vitreous mixture (Lahlil et al, 2010). This was done by formulating calcium antimonite opacifiers before incorporating these into a glass. In a study of Egyptian opaque glasses, TEM technology has revealed that these opacifiers were nanocrystals (Lahlil et al, 2010).

Despite the fact that nanotechnology has evidently existed for a very long time, it was only in the late 20th century that the hype around it was ignited, leading to a surge of research and intensified investigation as the field was labelled an emerging technology. One of the most apparent reasons for this extreme delay has been the lack of experimental equipment and techniques to conduct research at the nanoscale. The scanning probe microscopy, for example, was only established in 1981, with the invention of the scanning tunnelling...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• List of contributors
• List of abbreviations
• Introduction: The dynamics of new and emerging technologies in developing countries and the new role of the state
• Chapter 1: The advancement of nanotechnology: A sustainable development or an untenable vision?
• Chapter 2: Nanoscience, nanotechnology, nanomaterials and nanotoxicology in South Africa
• Chapter 3: Envisioning and engaging the societal implications of nanotechnology: Is it too early for Africa to do nanoethics?
• Chapter 4: Diseases of poverty: Nanomedicine research in South Africa
• Chapter 5: Building a bio-economy in South Africa: Lessons from biotechnology innovation networks in Taiwan
• Chapter 6: What can South Africa learn from high technology patents in India: An analysis of biotechnology patents through USPTO
• Chapter 7: The proliferation of stem cell research and therapy in South Africa and India: A comparative study
• Concluding remarks: Building the knowledge economy: Current strategies and developments in South Africa
• Index