In this clear and authoritative guide, Lavinia and Dan Cohn-Sherbok concisely examine the Jewish faith and its practices and explore what it really means to be a Jew today. From the nature of God to the divisions within Judaism and from worship to everyday customs, this introduction covers all the topics essential to an informed understanding of this highly influential 3000-year-old faith and its enduring traditions.
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The primary belief of Judaism is that God is One. He is a single unity, undivided, indivisible and unique. The first prayer of the Jewish faith is a declaration of this conviction: ‘Shema Israel, Adonai Eloheynu, Adonai Ehad!’ (Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One!). This is recited several times during the synagogue daily services and traditionally it is said before going to bed at night and on rising in the morning. Every pious Jew hopes to be able to say it on his or her deathbed. It is the supreme truth, the crucial theological insight which the Jews have given to the world.
Many verses in the Hebrew scriptures affirm the oneness of God. Through the prophet Isaiah, God declares, ‘I am the Lord and there is no other, besides Me there is no God’ (Isaiah 45:5). In the book of Deuteronomy, supposedly given to Moses, God says, ‘See now that I, even I am He, and there is no God beside Me’ (32:39) and earlier in the same book He remarks, ‘To you it was shown that the Lord is God, there is no one other besides Him’ (4:35).
In biblical times the battle was against paganism. The surrounding peoples believed in many gods, all of whom had different attributes and different spheres of interest. They were very much like glorified human beings. They desired each other; they gave birth; they feasted together; they quarrelled with each other; they had battles and they made new alliances. The Jewish God is not like that. Such verses as ‘Who is like Thee, O Lord, among the Gods? Who is like Thee, majestic in holiness, terrible in glorious deeds’ indicate His qualitative difference. Unlike the pagan gods who are merely the heroes of their particular area of competence, the Jewish God is the ultimate subject. He is the cause of everything that is, the source of all existence, the single perfect being.
Today the challenge to the Jewish view of God comes not from paganism, but from atheism. To many people nowadays the heavens seem empty. Science seems to have provided an alternative model of the universe. It is not governed by a supreme being, but by the immutable laws of cause and effect. Apples fall to the ground because of the laws of gravity; human beings catch infectious diseases because they have been exposed to germs; thunderstorms are the result of conflicting pressures in the atmosphere. Like the other great religions of the world in the twentieth century, Judaism is under siege from scientific atheism. But for most of its long history, it flourished in a believing culture and atheism was not a realistic option.
More of a threat came from dualism and trinitarianism. Dualism is the belief that there are not one but two ultimate powers in the universe, light and darkness, good and bad. This was the view of the Zoroastrians (today’s Parsees) and it is an attractive creed in that it solves the problem of how a good God tolerates evil in the world He has made. Nonetheless it was unequivocally rejected by the prophets. As Isaiah put it: ‘I form light and create darkness. I make weal and create woe. I am the Lord who do all these things’ (45:7). The trinitarianism of Christianity was also repudiated. Christians insist that they do believe in one God – He just happens to be manifest in three persons. Jews feel this is an equivocation and that the Christian creed is a rejection of the essential truth of God’s oneness.
The belief in God’s unity is splendidly expressed in a poem of the eleventh-century philosopher Solomon ben Joseph ibn Gabirol:
Thou art One, the beginning of all counting, the base of all construction,
Thou art One, and in the mystery of Thy Oneness, the wise are astonished, for they know not what it is.
Thou art One, and Thy Oneness neither diminishes nor increases, neither lacks nor exceeds.
Thou art One, but not as the one that is counted or owned, for number and chance, nor attribute nor form, can reach Thee.1
The names of God
The Jewish God is not merely a philosophical concept, a final cause which explains the existence of the universe. He is a personal God – the true hero of the biblical stories and the guide and mentor of His Chosen People. As such He has a proper name. In the Hebrew scriptures that name is written as
, since Hebrew script originally contained no vowels. God’s name was almost certainly pronounced in early times, but by the third century BCE the consonants were regarded as so sacred that they were never articulated. Instead, the convention was to read the letters as Adonai, which means ‘Lord’. Thus in English translations of the Hebrew text,
is never written as a proper name, but as ‘the Lord’.
is explained in the book of Exodus as ‘I AM WHO I AM’ and it is clearly derived from the old Hebrew verb
which means ‘to be’. The term ‘Jehovah’ was introduced by Christian scholars. It is merely
pronounced with the vowels of Adonai – thus making JeHoVaH. It is a hybrid and is not usually used by Jews. Over the course of time, even the title Adonai was regarded as too awesome to represent the four letters of God’s name and today most Orthodox Jews use Ha-Shem, which simply means ‘the Name’. Terms for God are treated with the greatest reverence. Among the strictly traditional, even English translations are perceived as too holy to write and today the custom is to inscribe G-d, the L-rd and even the Alm-ghty. This carefulness is explained and justified by the prohibition in the Ten Commandments: ‘You shall not take the name of
your God in vain; for
will not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain’ (Exodus 20:7).
In ancient times the term Adonai was not just used for God. It was a common mode of address to kings, slave-masters and even by wives to husbands. The ‘i’ at the end signifies ‘my’. And, in fact, Adona is a plural form so it literally means ‘my lords’. In many verses of scripture and in the liturgy, God is spoken of as
(pronounced Adonai) Eloheynu, which means ‘the Lord our God’.
In the Bible, God has many other names. He is often described as Elohim, which simply means God. It is in fact, a plural form and is also, on occasions, used to refer to the pagan gods. When referring to the One Jewish God, the form Ha-Elohim (the God) is often employed. Various conjectures have been made as to why a plural noun should be used to designate the unity of the One God. It has been suggested that it is a final remnant of archaic polytheistic beliefs or even that it indicates the importance of the deity – as in the ‘royal we’. Most scholars, however, think that it was taken from the Canaanite language. The Canaanites were the indigenous people of the land of Israel and they seem frequently to have addressed their individual gods as ‘my gods’.
The Canaanite word for god was El. This is not used often in the Bible except when it is coupled with another title. God is sometimes called El Elyon – literally God Most High. So the Psalmist declares, ‘I will give thanks to the Lord with my whole heart ... I will sing praises to Thy name O Most High’ (Psalm 9:1–2) and ‘Let them know that Thou alone whose name is
art the Most High over all the world’ (Psalm 83:18). Like the term Elohim, this title was taken over from the Canaanites who traditionally described El Elyon as the lord of all the gods. When the Jews took possession of the Promised Land, it was natural enough for them also to adopt this title for their One God.
Similar borrowings occurred with El Olam (the Everlasting God) and El Shaddai (the Almighty God). The book of Genesis describes the patriarch Abraham calling God El Olam at the shrine of Beersheba: ‘Abraham planted a tamarisk tree in Beersheba and called there on the name of
, the Everlasting God’ (21:33). Similarly, when Abraham attained the age of ninety-nine,
appeared to him and said, ‘I am God Almighty, walk with me and be blameless’ (17:1). In both instances there are clear Canaanite connections. Beersheba was almost certainly an old pagan shrine and, when God revealed Himself as El Shaddai, He was promising the patriarch that the land of Canaan (the Promised Land) was to be given to his descendants for ever.
It is notable that even today many Hebrew personal names incorporate the names of God. Daniel, Michael, Elisha, Israel, and Ezekiel are all built round El. Elijah uses both El and
while Adonijah grows from
and Adonai. The same is true of many modern Israeli surnames, as in that of Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu, which is clearly derived from the proper name of God.
The attributes of God
God’s names reflect His attributes. First of all, He is eternal. Throughout the Hebrew scriptures, He is described as having neither a beginning nor an end. As the Psalmist put it: ‘Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever Thou hadst formed the earth and the world, from everlasting to everlasting, Thou art God’ (Psalm 90:2). Thus God is fundamentally different and other from His creation. He lies outside it, so to speak. He is the one constant against which the ephemera of the universe passes. Everything in the physical world is subject to the laws of birth and death, renewal and decay. God alone is unchanging.
In later rabbinic interpretations of scripture, this idea is elaborated: ‘The power and might of our God fill the world. He was before the world was created and He will be when all the world comes to an end.’2 In general, however, philosophical speculation was discouraged. According to the Mishnah, the second-century collection of oral law, ‘whoever reflects on four things, it were better for him that he had not come into the world: What is above? What is below? What is before? What is after?’ Nonetheless, in later centuries, Jewish philosophers did try to come to some sort of understanding of the concept of eternity. In general, the consensus was that God lived in a sphere outside time, in an eternal present. Thus the thirteenth-century theologian Bahya ibn Asher ibn Halawa declared that ‘all times past and future are in the present so far as God is concerned, for He was before time and is not encompassed by it’.3 The eternity of the Almighty is accepted as an article of the Jewish faith. In the liturgy He is described as ‘the Lord of the Universe, who reigned before any creature yet was formed and, at the time when all things shall come to an end, He alone will reign’.4
Connected with the belief in God’s eternity is the conviction that He is omniscient – that He knows everything. As the Psalmist wrote: ‘O Lord, Thou hast searched me out and known me. Thou knowest when I sit down and when I rise up; Thou discernest my thoughts from afar. Thou searched out my path and my lying down, and art acquainted with all my ways’ (Psalm 139:1–3). This is only to be expected in a God who is outside time. Since the past and the future are in an eternal present to Him, His knowledge is not limited by space or time.
The rabbis were aware that this raises the problem of human freedom. If God knows exactly what you will do tomorrow (since He is experiencing it in His eternal present), it is hard to see how you could do otherwise. Nonetheless the sages insisted that human beings do have real liberty. Rabbi Akiva, the most prominent authority of the late first/early second century, flatly declared: ‘All is foreseen, but freedom of choice is given.’5 Later philosophers were not so sure and offered alternative explanations. In the twelfth century, Maimonides insisted that God’s knowledge was different from that of human beings and humans simply cannot understand its nature. Gersonides, in the early fourteenth century, maintained that God only knows things in general and He understands the full range of possibilities facing human beings. However, He does not know which possibility people will in fact adopt. On the other hand, Hasdai Crescas of the late fourteenth century argued that God’s knowledge is absolute and human free will is nothing more than an illusion.
Connected with the attribute of omniscience is that of omnipotence. Nothing is said to be impossible with God. As He Himself declared in the book of Jeremiah, ‘Behold I am the Lord of all flesh: is anything too hard for me?’ (32:27). This also ra...
