Goal Setting and Motivation in Therapy

Engaging Children and Parents

Jenny Ziviani, Anne Poulsen, Monica Cuskelly

• Publisher: Jessica Kingsley Publishers
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9780857008282
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Developmental Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Drawing together motivational theory, research-based evidence and guidance for best practice, this book presents innovative models for goal-setting and goal pursuit in therapy with children.

Setting goals not only allows children, and their families, to engage with the overall therapeutic process, but it also provides an essential motivational element throughout the entire therapeutic process. The editors and contributors give practical advice on empathically collaborating with the child and his or her family, to clearly identify achievable goals that can be wholeheartedly pursued. Key information on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is accessibly explained, which will aid professional understanding of the relationship between motivation, goal-setting, and strong therapeutic practice. The approaches in this book can be used by a wide range of professionals, including those who specialise in working with children with physical disabilities, learning disabilities, and emotional and behavioural difficulties.

The combination of theory, research and practical advice makes this book an essential resource for professionals working therapeutically with children, including occupational therapists, speech and language therapists, physiotherapists, counsellors, psychologists, social workers, arts therapists and psychotherapists.

PART I

THE SCIENCE OF SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY AS APPLIED TO GOAL SETTING

CHAPTER 1

THE SCIENCE OF GOAL SETTING

ANNE A. POULSEN, JENNY ZIVIANI AND MONICA CUSKELLY

Overview

Motivation and goal setting are closely linked. Historically, there is extensive use of the term “goal” in scientific accounts of motivation. From a common language perspective, motivation in goal-related endeavors represents a dynamic, driving force, activating movement towards a chosen outcome. The definition of “goal setting” used in this book draws on Elliot and Fryer’s (2008) conceptualization of goals (see Box 1.1) and Locke and Latham’s (2013) goal setting theory. These researchers describe goal setting as a process in which an individual consciously determines and commits to (i.e. cares about) a desired endpoint or objective. Goal setting mechanisms that increase motivation to attain goals include: direct, purposeful attention and commitment; expenditure of effort; task persistence; effective strategy usage (Locke and Latham 2013); and self-determination in relation to goal choice and goal planning (Ryan and Deci 2000).

In therapy, there is an art to supporting the identification of goals that will be pursued with vigor, dedication and persistence (Ziviani, Poulsen and Cuskelly 2013). Setting goals in therapy is a complex process. Translational research is providing guidance regarding ways to enhance therapeutic practice in this important area. Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci 2000) is a meta-theory of motivation that provides a theoretical basis for considering key motivational processes that influence goal setting practices.

Box 1.1 Basic features of goals

Remember this…

•Goals represent internal cognitions about purposive, consciously committed action.

•Goals may be an end, aim, object or desired possibility.

•The function of a goal is to guide a course of action; thus, a goal has a causal influence on behavior.

•The directional focus is future oriented but may be approach- (e.g. “to learn to tie my shoelaces”), or avoidance-oriented (e.g. “to stop biting my fingernails”).

•Various person-level motivational influences (e.g. self-beliefs and perceptions) underlie goal choice and direction.

•Environment-level regulatory mechanisms (e.g. specific affordances or barriers, such as relational support) can influence goal choice and direction.

From an SDT perspective, goal setting practices that attend to the three basic psychological needs for Autonomy (“I have choices and can make decisions,” i.e. experiencing the self as the initiator and owner of one’s behavior); Relatedness (“I feel connected,” i.e. having a sense of belonging); and Competence (“I can do it,” i.e. experiencing mastery) will be more likely to be pursued vigorously by the individual. In therapy, how often are goals child-generated, personally valued and endorsed by a child? Is it likely, for example, that a young child with developmental coordination difficulties will present to therapy saying, “I want to write well enough so that the teacher can read my stories”? Rather, it is often parents who bring their child to therapy with a concern, such as, “The teacher noticed that (s)he’s way behind everyone else in class with writing and it can be difficult to read. There are other issues too, like concentration and sitting still that are also worrying me.” In both situations, handwriting and classroom behavior might not be at the top of a list of personal goals set by the child. Instead, “I want to ride my bike” might be the first goal identified if conditions were conducive to the elicitation of a child’s self-relevant, personally meaningful goals.

The ways in which elements of the self and social environment influence motivation during goal setting can be further considered by using a Person-Environment-Occupation approach. The SCOPE-IT, or Synthesis of Child, Occupational Performance and Environment—In Time framework, is one such approach that has evolved over time to include SDT motivation principles (Poulsen and Ziviani 2004; Poulsen, Ziviani and Cuskelly 2013). SCOPE-IT uses the visually appealing symbol of a watch as a means to systematically organize and present the multiple factors that support or hinder goal pursuit (i.e. goal setting and goal-striving). Using a SCOPE-IT approach (see Figure 1.1) ensures that the affordances and constraints of both social and physical environmental factors are fully appraised during goal exploration. In this way, pathways to goal realization can be grounded in the reality of the child and family’s everyday world.

Adopting an SDT perspective and using the revised SCOPE-IT framework (Poulsen et al. 2013) provides practitioners with a comprehensive and realistic basis for understanding and supporting self-determined goal setting. SDT offers guidance regarding what to do when children and parent(s) seem uninterested or unmotivated in therapy. SCOPE-IT provides an entry point for identifying critical information that will support effective goal setting. Collaborative efforts to set tailored goals need to take place in contexts where the core conditions of empathy, genuineness and respect are upheld. By providing these conditions, and learning how to sensitively consider the constant interplay between internal and external regulatory forces, clients who are vacillating between engagement and disengagement are encouraged to assume a more active role in therapy.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the scientific literature related to motivation and goal setting in therapy with children and families. It is proposed that understanding the science behind the many goal setting tools and approaches described in this book will strengthen and build sustainable therapy practices across a range of settings and circumstances. There will be a focus on how SDT principles can be applied to support child and family member capacity, performance and confidence during the goal determination process. The challenges associated with identifying and prioritizing goals for children and their family members will be discussed from an SDT perspective using the SCOPE-IT framework to consider child- and environment-level influences on behavior.

Figure 1.1The SCOPE-IT Model (Synthesis of Child, Occupational Performance and Environment—In Time)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)— a meta-theory of motivation

Motivation to engage in goal setting varies according to basic psychological need satisfaction for Autonomy, Relatedness and Competence (ARC). From an SDT and goal-based perspective these ARC needs are not regarded as behavioral motives, rather as “experiential requirements” or nutriments that support collaborative goal setting and effective goal pursuit. Needs and motives function as energizers (i.e. activators and arousers) of behavior with motive strength changing after experiences of success or failure at the end of an action sequence (Prentice, Halusic and Sheldon 2014). The degree to which conditions support ARC need satisfaction has a robust influence on performance, persistence and creativity (see Box 1.2); however, attending to all ARC needs enhances the likelihood of these positive elements occurring during goal setting and goal-striving (SDT 2015).

Box 1.2 Goal setting and the “ARC” of basic psychological need satisfaction

Remember this…

•Autonomy means enabling children and parents to experience control, self-initiation, participation and choice during self-determination of personally important goals.

•Relatedness refers to feeling connected in safe, secure relationships and increases the likelihood of committing to personally meaningful, realistic goals by emphasizing collaboration, support and empathy versus confrontation, control and authority.

•Competence means feeling capable and confident in being able to master the tasks associated with goal setting.

Motivation to pursue a goal is influenced by internal and external regulatory factors. These form an SDT motivational continuum (Ryan and Deci 2000) varying according to levels of Internal (i.e. volitional self-endorsement and internalization) or External Regulation (i.e. extrinsic control) of behavior. The different regulatory styles described in the SDT motivational continuum include: (i) intrinsic motivation (“I want to ride my bike because it’s fun”); (ii) integrated regulation (“I want to ride my bike because it’s part of who I am”); (iii) identified regulation (“I want to ride my bike because I want to get fit”); (iv) introjected regulation (“I need to ride my bike or I’ll feel ashamed that I am so lazy”); and (v) external regulation (“I must ride my bike each afternoon or Dad will be angry and tell me I’m a ‘couch potato’”). Amotivation (“I couldn’t be bothered riding my bike and nobody else cares either”) is often included in the SDT motivational continuum although it is not strictly a motivational state, and there are no obvious internal or external behavioral regulators. These regulatory influences will be further discussed in Chapter 2.

Importance of goal setting to effective practice

There is consensus that the formulation of specific, appropriately challenging and measurable goals represents “best practice” in goal setting (Locke and Latham 2013). Specific, clearly defined, proximal, achievable goals are more readily attainable than long-term goals. The SDT continuum offers a means of understanding goal commitment and why some goals may be pursued more vigorously than others. A child who is coerced or encouraged to come to therapy by another person (usually a parent) will initially experience high levels of External rather than Internal Regulation of behavior.

SDT predicts that a child and their family who feel a sense of control and choice (i.e. Autonomy) during goal determination will have high psychological engagement and adherence to purposeful goal pursuit (Ryan and Deci 2000). When children and parents are well supported during early conversations, current and future functioning can be realistically appraised. This lays the foundation for identifying clear therapy goals and action plans. According to SDT, ongoing support of family members’ ARC needs fosters the most volitional and high quality forms of motivation and is required for active engagement (Deci and Ryan 2008).

During goal setting, involvement is facilitated by creatin...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Endorsement
• Half Title
• Of Related Interest
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Foreword
• Acknowledgments
• Preface
• Part I The Science of Self-Determination Theory as Applied to Goal Setting
• Part II Strategies to Promote Psychological Need Satisfaction During Goal Setting
• Part III The Challenges of Implementing Goal Setting in Practice
• Part IV Goal Setting Instruments
• Contributing Authors
• References
• Subject Index
• Author Index