The Persian Alexander

The First Complete English Translation of the Iskandarnama

Evangelos Venetis, Evangelos Venetis

• Publisher: I.B. Tauris
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781838609580
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

Alexander the Great (356-333 BC) was to capture the imagination of his contemporaries and future generations. His image abounds in various cultures and literatures - Eastern and Western - and spread around the globe through oral and literary media at an astonishing rate during late antiquity and the early Islamic period. The first Iskandarnama, or 'The Book of Alexander', now held in a private collection in Tehran, is the oldest prose version of the Alexander romance in the Persian tradition. Thought to have been written at some point between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries by an unknown author, the lively narrative recasts Alexander as Iskandar, a Muslim champion - a king and prophet, albeit flawed but heroic, and remarkably appropriated to Islam, though the historic Alexander lived and died some 1, 000 years before the birth of the faith. This new English translation of the under-studied text is the first to be presented unabridged and sheds fresh light onto the shape and structure of this vital document.In so doing it invites a reconsideration of the transformation of a Western historical figure - and one-time mortal enemy of Persia - into a legendary hero adopted by Iranian historiographic myth-making.
Evangelos Venetis, the translator, also offers a textual analysis, providing much-needed context and explanations on both content and subsequent reception. This landmark publication will be invaluable to students and scholars of classical Persian literature, ancient and medieval history and Middle East studies, as well as to anyone studying the Alexander tradition.

Translation

INTRODUCTORY PART

. . . [1a] [Darius] the son of Darius was a descendant of Bahman and the narration of his life is detailed. Darius was the King of Iran and brother of the Double-Horned One. Darius reigned in Iran for fourteen years. He subjugated Greece to him and the Greeks paid to him annually 500 golden eggs along with other precious presents weighing 100 methqal.

Philip, the Caesar of Greece, agreed with Darius’ [Alexander’s] decree.¹ Then Philip sent his daughter along with a rich dowry and presents to the King of Iran Darius, with the aim that she would become his wife and thus stop the hostility between Greeks and Iranians. Then they brought his daughter with her dowry and wealth to the Pārs province, the capital of the Iranian kingdom. King Darius expressed his happiness to her and he ordered that she be made happy. He also ordered that the emissaries of the Caesar of Greece should be treated in a hospitable way. Then he welcomed her with all his majesty and esteem, putting her into his harem.

This girl was extremely beautiful and Darius loved her dearly. Due to his love for her, he removed the tax which Greeks paid to him and he ordered that annual gifts would be sent to the Greek Caesar from his own treasury. One night, in the following year, the girl and the King of Iran were sleeping when suddenly a bad odour came from her mouth. When the King smelled it, he became unhappy and he never let her share his bed or be in private with him again. Yet he ordered that a remedy be found for her and be brought from other areas to produce a medicine. Darius was unhappy with this development and one day he was so disappointed that he lost interest in her and became alienated from his wife. Finally, the King ordered that his wife should return to Greece along with the dowry and the rich gifts that had accompanied her when she had come from Greece as well as various gifts from his treasury. Coincidentally, his wife was pregnant but the King [was not aware of it].

His wife returned to her father who became sad. For a month, he did not sit on the throne and abstained from all pleasures. He ordered his daughter to remain in her quarters, thus concealing from everyone what had happened to her. Caesar viewed it as a disgrace that people may know his daughter had returned pregnant; hence, he ordered that her childbirth remain a secret. She lay down her burden, giving birth to a boy as beautiful as the moon. The news spread that a son had been born to Philip by a concubine. The event became the cause for celebration and joy.

Astrologers who were summoned by the Caesar cast the horoscope and studied it very carefully. They said to Caesar, ‘This boy shall reign over the East and the West. He shall go around the earth and subjugate all the kings of the world to him. No king shall withstand him and everyone shall pay tribute to him.’ Having heard the predictions of the astrologers, Philip concealed the true origin of the child from everyone, saying that it was his own son and taking care for the boy’s upbringing. Philip called him Alexander [Iskandar] and ordered that he receive a royal upbringing. Alexander surpassed his peers in manliness, horsemanship, polo and in the art of war. Everyone thought him to be the son of Philip. (This story is included here so that you may know who the Double-Horned One was, what his life and the manner of this birth were like, and why he was known as double-horned. Much has been said about this name and explanations of it are found in many reliable books. But it cannot be clarified unless we narrate the story from the very beginning.) Alexander was grown up when his grandfather died. Philip had made Alexander his heir, commanding his subjects to follow and adhere to him. When Philip passed away, everyone chose Alexander as their king. Nobody knew that he was the son of Philip’s daughter; everyone thought that he was Philip’s son.

Alexander became the King of Greece and conquered the world through justice. He established good laws, suppressed heresy and put an end to injustice. Mankind was happy with his justice and fairness, which brought peace to the world. Kings rejoiced and sent him their good wishes through messengers. Alexander, the Double-Horned One, knew that he was the son of King Darius, because his mother had told him of his real ancestry. Yet he kept it concealed.

When the kingdom of Greece was firmly under Alexander’s rule, Darius son of Bahman, who was the King of Iran, passed away. His son, Darius, born of the daughter of the King of India, became king. After his rule was firmly established, Darius dispatched a messenger to his brother, asking for tribute. By contrast, his father, from the time he sent Alexander’s mother back to Greece, had never demanded tribute. Alexander was therefore irritated by the message. He answered the letter, saying, ‘I will not pay any tribute, prepare for war.’ King Alexander, who knew that King Darius was his own brother, did not reveal the truth.

THE EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER THE DOUBLE-HORNED ONE TO IRAN TO FIGHT DARIUS, THE SON OF DARIUS

It is divinely narrated that with his army, Alexander left Greece to wage war against Darius. On his way, he conquered many kingdoms, becoming their king. When Alexander was close to the Pārs province, King Darius prepared an army and left the city. In Pārs, there is a city called Dariusgird. When Alexander heard this word, he wept to hear the name of his father, and dispatched a messenger to his brother, saying, ‘I have not come to win your kingdom. You asked for tribute from me although your father, Darius, who was greater than you, had freed Greece from paying tribute. You are the one who started this hostility. There is kinship between you and me. I do not want enmity to erupt between us, to make the world bewildered and to cause deaths, for which you and I shall be blamed. Beware! Do not poison the pleasures of kingship and the kingdom which your father bestowed to you. Listen to me and take counsel, because the world is fleeing and does not remain with us. Nothing befits the memory of a king better than a good name. Be in accordance with me and stop seeking war. Follow your father in his steps, a prosperous king, because I have not come to deprive you of the kingdom of Iran. I wish to go around the world, to legislate properly wherever I go, to make kings righteous and to bring humanity towards their subjects, to have a good name wherever I pass and to protect my subjects from injustice and oppression. For what best befits a king is to shelter his subjects from injustice and tyranny, and to let the benefits of his justice and equity reach his equals. If you start this enmity and war, you will suffer the evil consequences, and the outcome will be dreadful. Set not your mind upon quarrel and hostility, and observe the rules of friendship and righteousness. Do not seek to fight me, so that the world may remain peaceful, and Iran, which was given to you by your father, may remain in your hands. I will be, for the time being, in Iran for one month and we will be pleased with each other’s company. Then I will depart without harming you and leave the kingdom of Iran to you.’

The messenger came to Darius the son of Darius to hand in Alexander’s message. He informed Darius about Alexander’s offers through friendship and harmony. Darius responded angrily and in a hostile manner, saying, ‘Only the sword will speak between us. I will not listen to Alexander’s nonsense. Go back and say to Alexander, “Leave my kingdom alone, because I will not be in peace with you. I will not free Greece from paying tribute and I will not allow you to stay in this land. Get ready for war.”’

The messenger returned and informed Alexander. It was difficult for Alexander, who knew from his mother the truth about his parentage, to fight his brother. However, he prepared for battle and they fought for four consecutive days. On the fourth day, Darius was defeated and fled to Kerman whilst Alexander went to Persepolis. He ascended Iran’s throne. The nobles and the elders came to salute him as king. Some knew that he was the son of King Darius. They said, ‘May you get pleasure from your father’s throne!’ Alexander bent his head in tears. Meanwhile, after Darius’ flight to Kerman, he had abandoned his home, wife and children in Alexander’s hands. Alexander dispatched a messenger to them and revealed the secret. He called Darius’ wife and children to himself, saying ‘I will treat you as Darius did. Relax and remain where you are peacefully. Nobody will harm you.’ Everyone prayed for him and Alexander remained in Iran for a year. Darius’ wife sent a letter to King Darius, saying, ‘This king treats us kindly and he says, “If King Darius comes back, I will give him back his kingdom and depart.”’ But when King Darius received the letter, he said, ‘I would prefer to die than be under the rule of the Greeks.’ King Darius was not aware that King Alexander was his brother.

After a year, Darius formed a great army in Kerman and set out for Pārs. When Alexander was informed of this, he departed from Istakhr and set his camp before Darius. He sent a message to Darius again, saying, ‘Do not bring harm on yourself. Come and sit on your throne. The kingdom is yours and I will go to Bahrain.’ Yet King Darius responded, ‘It is a shame on me to be submissive to the Greeks. I will get back my throne by the sword.’ Thus, Alexander’s efforts were futile. They prepared for war again and many people were killed on both sides. Darius was almost defeated, because Alexander was strong.

Darius had two ministers, Māhyār and Jānūsibār. They conspired, saying, ‘Darius will not continue to be king and his fall will put our lives in danger. We must assassinate him and go to Alexander, aiming to win his favour.’ After planning this scheme, they went to Darius’ tent and said to him, ‘Order everyone to leave; there is a secret we are going to reveal to you.’ When Darius acted accordingly, they suddenly drew their daggers and stabbed him. As he fell, they left the tent and went to Alexander. They bowed and they said, ‘Rejoice, O King, for your enemy is dead!’ ‘Who are you and what enemy?’ asked Alexander. ‘We killed Darius and we were both his ministers,’ they replied. Alexander was angered but he did not reveal his wrath. ‘Where is the slain enemy? Take me to him!’ he ordered. He mounted his horse and they went to Darius’ camp. Darius’ soldiers had gone and his army had dispersed.

When Alexander entered Darius’ tent, he saw Darius, who was still alive. Alexander’s heart was moved. With his eyes in tears, he placed Darius’ head on his knee. He said, ‘O brother! Many times I sent you messages, declaring that I did not aim to win Iranian kingship, that the throne was yours, and that I would leave it to you and leave. But you did not listen to me. I am your brother; I am not Philip’s son. Darius, the son of Darius, was my father. Arise if you can and mount your horse. Iran and Greece shall both be yours.’ Thus, Darius found out that Alexander was his brother. And when he saw that he was a hopeless case, due to his mortal wound, he said to Alexander, ‘My brother, know that this was my fate and the will of God. One cannot doubt His will. I must think of my children and my wives. One wife is the daughter of the King of the Indians and another one is pregnant. I do not know what she will bear. Her name is Rushanak [Roxana], of noble birth, a descendant of Gudarz of Isfahan. If she gives a birth to a son, give your daughter in marriage and call him Bahman. If she bears a girl, call her Humay and betroth her to whomever you wish. Thus the name of Isfandiyar will remain. The daughter of the King of India is six months pregnant. Her homeland is near. I brought her from Ceylon. Send her to India with her dowry that her parents may give her to some other bridegroom, because she is young; or else, if you like, ask her hand yourself.’

Alexander wept and replied, ‘I shall act accordingly in everything except this. God forbid that I should desire your wife, because I have four wives, all of them free women, and forty concubines from here and from Greece.’ Darius was moved and held Alexander’s hand. Before Darius was dead, Alexander summoned the ministers before him. First, he had their hands and feet cut off, and then he hanged them. And he ordered the heralds to proclaim, ‘Treachery against one’s king is thus rewarded.’ Darius was still alive and was carried to the city. Alexander went before him on foot. They took Darius to the women’s chambers and placed him in a bed. Alexander sat next to him. Then Darius’ mother came. Her father was the King of Kashmir and she was a noble and learned woman. She prostrated herself before Alexander, then she placed her face on her son’s face and he passed away. His mother tore her hair and as a sign of mourning, the saddles of Darius’ horses were overturned. Alexander ordered the preparation of a tomb, placing Darius in a golden coffin in the tomb.

Alexander remained in Iran for five months and then everything was settled. He sent the daughter of the King of India to her homeland with her dowry. Roxana, the wife who was pregnant, gave birth to a girl, but she herself died. Then Alexander went to Isfahan, taking Darius’ household along with him. He gave them the area between Pārs and Isfahan, appointing a deputy to arrange their affairs. He then headed to Kerman and from there to ‘Uman. Ten thousand mules carried his belongings and he was accompanied by 70,000 brave horsemen. After Isfahan, he crossed many lands. Monarchs paid Alexander homage and sent him provisions and as a result, they were allowed to remain king. Yet those who were not lawful to him were imprisoned and replaced by Alexander’s deputies. Alexander was known as the ‘Conqueror of the Countries’.

He went on in this manner, finally reaching the sea. His army stayed there for four months, building ships and equipping them for the voyage. Then Alexander set out for ‘Uman with a considerable quantity of provisions and spare goods.

ALEXANDER’S ARRIVAL AT ‘UMAN AND THE STORY BETWEEN HIM AND THE KING OF ‘UMAN

It is thus divinely narrated that, when Alexander approached ‘Uman, he said to his men, ‘I will go to the King of ‘Uman disguised as a messenger. People say that he is a just and fair monarch.’ The people of ‘Uman were afraid, when they heard that Alexander the Conqueror of Countries had arrived. The King of ‘Uman summoned the aristocracy and said to them, ‘King Alexander has arrived from the sea and is coming to our land. What can we do?’ His men replied, ‘The King knows best!’ Then the King said, ‘I have a plan: I will prepare rich presents and spare goods and give them to Alexander. Then I will go to meet him, because we ought to be thankful if he crosses our land in peace.’ He ordered a great quantity of provisions to be prepared and sent to Alexander. He also ordered a messenger to make apologies to Alexander and, if he found the place worthy, to invite him to stay and rest in the land for a month.

Alexander was pleased and said to the messenger, ‘It is hot here and we will stay for a while. If your king prefers to come to me, I may see him and know his mind.’ The messenger returned and delivered Alexander’s message to Kasandar, the King of ‘Uman. He obeyed Alexander, and he came to salute him with many and rare presents. Alexander treated him kindly, giving him the seat of honour. The King of ‘Uman said to Alexander, ‘I am your slave!’ Alexander replied, ‘You have received much trouble from our expedition.’ ‘His Majesty’s command is binding,’ said the King of ‘Uman. Then Alexander ordered his men to show him the presents which the King of ‘Uman had brought: gold, aloes wood, camphor, rarities from lands beyond the sea and much wealth. Alexander accepted the presents and appointed Kasandar as King of ‘Uman. The latter asked Alexander to stay there for a few days and to let his men rest, because it was the hot season. ‘We will stay for about ten days,’ Alexander said. Then the King of ‘Uman left. During the ten days that Alexander stayed in ‘Uman, the King sent provisions to Alexander’s camp.

One day Porus dispatched a messenger to the King of ‘Uman with the following message: ‘We know that Alexander has arrived from the sea. Why did you let him come ashore? He will take our throne! He will start with you first and then it will be our turn. Have you heard what he has done to other kings on his way from Greece up to here, and what he did to Darius, the King of Kings? Now that he has already come ashore, fight with him; and if you need help, you will have it. If you cannot withstand him in war, invite him and capture him in your house. In this manner you will win yourself a great name in the world.’

When the King of ‘Uman read this letter, he grew fearful. He called his ministers and said to them, ‘Alexander will be informed of these circumstances. The secret will be revealed, Alexander will become angry with us and his wrath will destroy everything.’ The ministers said, ‘The King himself knows the solution to this.’ The King of ‘Uman took the letter as such to Alexander. When Alexander saw the letter, he admired the truthfulness of the King of ‘Uman and treated him kindly, saying ‘The King of Kings, Darius, was my brother and I did not kill him. His own ministers stabbed him and I had them immediately executed as an example for the others. On my way to this land, I treated everyone as I treated you. Those who came to us and expressed obedience were not harmed. However, those who quarrelled with us lost their lives. This will be our policy thereafter wherever we go. Our goal is to go around the earth. You will hear the news when I conquer Porus’ land.’

After ten days, Alexander departed from ‘Uman and the King of ‘Uman gave him ten elephants. Alexander and his soldiers had never seen elephants before, for there are no elephants in Greece. Then Alexander left for Porus’ land.

Porus had been the king of all India before Kayd subjugated India to him. Amongst his royal possessions, Porus had 70,000 elephants and whatever else he had can be judged from this. His soldiers were numerous. He had his court at Ceylon, the capital of India, but according to some, his court was at Kashmir, the home of the white Indians.

Alexander camped near the kingdom of Porus, whilst the latter ordered his men to shut the gates firmly and block the passages leading to the city. Alexander thought, ‘This man is not honest with us and does not intend to make peace. I will go to him disguised as a messenger, find out about the circumstances and learn about his wealth.’

HOW ALEXANDER WENT TO PORUS DISGUISED AS A MESSENGER AND THE STORY BETWEEN THEM

It is divinely narrated that Alexander came to the city gate disguised as a messenger along with some horsemen. When the Indians saw him, they asked him about his identity and the purpose of his visit. He said, ‘I am a messenger of Alexander, the Conqueror of the Countries, to the King of India.’

When they informed Porus, he ordered that the city squares be decorated and that the elephants and lions be arrayed. Gold-belted slaves stood there in line. Then he asked his men to bring him to him. They brought him a golden chair to sit on and they asked him to deliver the message. He said, ‘Alexander, the King of the Earth and the Conqueror of the Countries, says, “Prepare provisions for my army, because we shall stay here for a few days. Come and visit us, if you want us to cross your land peacefully. Or else prepare for war.”’

Porus became angry. He said, ‘Who is Alexander to talk to me like this? I will put the elephants to destroy his camp.’ Alexander turned red in anger, but said nothing. Porus observed him carefully, became suspicious and thought, ‘This man could be Alexander. I will arrest him and relieve the world from his annoyance.’ He said to Alexander, ‘Stay here tonight, as long as we are considering the message, and tomorrow morning we will give you an answer.’ Alexander bowed and said, ‘The King is to be obeyed.’ Then Porus told his attendant to take Alexander to the messenger’s quarters. He honoured the messenger and sent him food and drink, as kings are accustomed to do.

But Alexander through insight and divine protection perceived that Porus had discovered his identity. He said to a chamberlain who had accompanied him, ‘Be quick and find a plan, otherwise my life will not be worth two grains of barley. Porus knows that I am Alexander.’ ‘What is to be done...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of Plates
• Note on Transliteration
• Preface
• Introduction
• Translation
• Glossary of Terms, Characters and Proper Names
• Notes
• Bibliography
• Index
• eCopyright