II
The Core Constituents The term grammatical categories refers to the following classes of words in English, traditionally called parts of speech:
nouns: | dog, group, happiness, UNESCO |
verbs: | do, be, walk, shall |
adjectives: | sad, green, asleep, burnt |
adverbs: | well, later, near, however |
pronouns: | you, yourself, one, anything |
articles: | a, the |
prepositions: | on, of, across, like |
conjunctions: | and, or, since, if |
interjections: | No!, Alas!, Oh! |
Traditionally, too, they may be classified into major (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and minor parts of speech, noting that the major parts of speech have distinct referents while the minor parts of speech do not.
Though useful in many ways, these terms and their traditional definitions have been considered lacking in scientific rigor. For one, the bases for classification are inconsistent since some terms are defined notionally (âa noun is a name of a person, place, or thingâ) while others are defined functionally (âan adjective modifies a nounâ). Even the definition of an adverb is obviously illogical (âan adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverbâ) because it is, in part, circular (âan adverb modifies another adverbâ).
For another, words classified together under the same term behave differently. For example, that is considered a conjunction, yet does not connect in the same manner as and or if..then. The category of adverbs is the worst defined of all, since it seems that whatever cannot be classified under the others get identified as adverbs.
These traditional definitions of âparts of speechâ can be traced to the first grammars of English, in the late 18th century, which followed the publication of the first monolingual English dictionary. These definitions were mere translations of even older ones as used in Latin and Greek, which were used in the teaching of rhetoric, not in the analysis of other languages.
Modern grammars have used the concept of distributionâthe pattern of occurrence and non-occurrenceâas the defining criterion. Technically then, âparts of speechâ in modern grammars are actually distribution classes. For example, in English, a ânounâ is any word which may occur with a determiner before it (the book), or with a plural (books) or possessive (bookâs/booksâ) morpheme. In a sentence, it may occur before the verb phrase, functioning as its subject; after a transitive verb, functioning as its object or complement; after a linking verb, functioning as its complement; or after a preposition, functioning as its object. It may also occur after another noun or noun phrase, functioning as its appositive. [See section on Noun.] Thus, not knowing the meaning of a term, like jerkin, you will know it is a noun if it appears in the following constructions:
The jerkin has become popular in modern houses. (after a determiner)
You can see jerkins in many subdivisions. (plural form)
The jerkinâs shape reminds me of Japanese origami. (possessive form)
That is a jerkin over there. (complement of be)
The scaffolding is for the jerkin up front. (object of preposition)
This distinctive roofing style, the jerkin, adds to the cost of a house. (appositive)
Other modern grammars use the terms form class or word class. This Manual prefers the term distribution class because it emphasizes distribution as its sole basis for classification. The more general term used in various current linguistic theories is grammatical category serving a particular grammatical function.
Some grammatical categoriesâthe ânoun,â âverb,â and âadjectiveââmay be called open sets because speakers of the language keep adding to them. A new technology, for instance, would introduce the noun for ...