Gender Inequality

Socioeconomic Analysis and Developing Country Case Studies

Clement A Tisdell

• Publisher: WSPC
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9789811201691
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Gender Studies
• Index: Social Sciences

This unique book provides an easily comprehended overview of facts about gender inequality and contains a valuable introduction to economic theories of this inequality, the applicability of which is assessed in the light of empirical evidence. A special feature of this book is its adoption of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of gender inequality. Both economic and sociological influences on gender inequality are taken into account in an innovative fashion.

The scholarly coverage of this book is broad and focuses mainly on female disadvantage; both that suffered by female children and by women. Subjects covered include economic theories of gender inequality and critiques of these; sex selection, preferences for boys and the value of females; measures of gender inequality and their application; the occurrence of poverty and its relationship with the deprivation of women and children; implications for the status of females of their access to different forms of capital (taking into account modern concepts of capital); the need to take into account little explored relationships between gender inequality and the achievement of sustainable development; ecofeminism; and the abuse of women by men. The discussion is reinforced by case studies and examples drawn primarily from South Asian and Northeast Asian countries. Some attention is given in the case studies to the diverse practices of 'tribal' people and minorities. This is done in order to better assess existing theories about gender inequality. The value of adopting a multidisciplinary approach to the study of gender inequality is well demonstrated. Consequently, this book provides a more holistic and balanced view of gender inequality than other available books.

Contents:

• About the Author
• Preface
• List of Tables
• List of Figures
• Socioeconomics, Gender Inequality and Female Disadvantage: An Overview
• Economic Theories of the Family and Gender Inequality
• Sex Ratios, Sex Selection and the Value of Females
• Prejudice Against Female Children: Theory and Survey Findings from Eastern India
• Gender Inequality Indices of the UN and their Application to Asian Countries
• Determinants of the Intra-Family Status of Wives: Theory and a Study in West Bengal
• Poverty and Economically Deprived Women and Children: Their Interdependence and Policy
• Access to Capital and its Ownership: Implications for Gender Inequality
• Human Resource Capital, Gender Inequality and Sustainable Development
• Ecofeminism and Support for Sustainable Development and Conservation
• Work and Gender Inequalities in Selected Asian Countries
• The Abuse of Women by Men
• Insights Based on Field Notes Compiled in Eastern India: Tribals, Gender Issues and Village Life
• References
• Index

Readership: For readers who are interested in having an overview of gender inequality.Violence;Social Discrimination;Poverty;Tribal and Minority Groups;Labor Force;Sex Selection;Male-Female Ratios;Female Disadvantage;Dowry;Bride Price;Game Theory0 Key Features:

• This is the only available book which provides an extensive account of both economic and sociological (cultural) aspects of gender inequality. Theories about gender inequality are compared with reality by means of informative empirical evidence, interesting examples and valuable case studies. This is done in an easily accessible manner
• This book identifies several gender relationships not considered in other books. For example, it identifies and systematically explores consequence for sustainable development of gender inequality not considered by ecofeminists
• This book provides a unique (but constructive) critique of the existing literature on gender inequality

Chapter 1

Socioeconomics, Gender Inequality and Female Disadvantage: An Overview

1.1 Introduction

Gender inequality is a pervasive global phenomenon. When it occurs, it is mostly females who are disadvantaged and who suffer. It can result in substantial economic and psychological costs for the affected parties and can be costly for whole communities. Gender inequality is multidimensional in character, and its presence and nature are influenced by diverse economic and sociological (cultural) factors. Furthermore, the relative influence of these factors on gender inequality have altered with the passage of time, often in response to changes in the structure of economies. In addition (as will become clear from this book), the comparative impact of these factors on gender inequality varies between contemporary societies, in many cases markedly. All of these aspects are explored in this book.

In this book, I outline contemporary theories which specify determinants of the inequality and assess these. I take into account both economic and sociological factors. Gender inequality within the family is given particular consideration, but many other aspects of gender inequality are also examined. These include the gender inequality indices of the United Nations, the relationship between poverty and the economic deprivation of women and children, ecofeminism, the implications of gender inequality for sustainable development and work-related gender inequalities. Case studies and examples of gender inequality, based mainly (but not entirely) on the situation in South and East Asian countries, add empirical depth to the analysis in this book. In order to provide the reader with a useful guide to the contents of this book, a preview of each chapter is provided in the following sections.

1.2 A Preview of Chapter 2: Economic Theories of the Family and Gender Inequality

Family decision-making and gender inequality within the family were neglected by economists until the publication, in 1981, of Becker’s pioneering book, A Treatise on the Family. He proposed a particular unitary theory of family. Today, there are several different theories of decision-making and gender inequality within the family. These theories are outlined and assessed in this chapter, which also takes account of the sociological and cultural influences on family decision-making and intra-household inequality. Initially, unitary theories of the family (of which Becker’s is one) are reviewed. Then models which are derived from the theory of games are given attention. It is shown how the cooperative game model of von Neumann and Morgenstern [1944] can be applied to the division (within a family) of the benefits (payoffs) from family cooperation. However, this model does not give a precise solution to this sharing because it only identifies a range of acceptable sharing possibilities. Nash [1950] developed a bargaining model for this sharing which yields a (proposed) definite solution to this problem based on the relative threat power of family partners. Like the other proposed models, it also has limitations which are discussed.

Modeling of family decisions based on weightings of the preference functions of family partners [Himmelweit et al., 2013] (these models could be classified as being unitary models), as well as a set of models based on the premise that family members often have separate spheres of responsibility for family decisions, are explored. Divided responsibility models of this type have been proposed by Lundberg and Pollak [1993, 1996] and Davis [1976]. Partial or complete division of responsibilities for decision-making can be present based on the gender of family members. The range of possibilities is classified in this chapter. It is argued that cultural (sociological) factors are significant determinants of the division of these responsibilities. Jackson [1993] claims that considerable diversity exists in the distribution of responsibilities for intra-family decision-making between societies, as well as frequently within individual societies. This is supported by the evidence provided in this book, as is her claim that more attention should be paid to the dynamics of alterations in these relationships.

1.3 An Outline of Chapter 3: Sex Ratios, Sex Selection and the Value of Females

This chapter provides information on sex ratios and their trends in South and East Asian countries, e.g. China and India. The extent to which these ratios result in sex selection of children by parents, reflecting the comparative (economic) value placed on females compared to males, is discussed. Data are given both on sex ratios at birth and for different age groups.

Relevant views and economic theories proposed by Becker and Posner [2009] are assessed in the light of Asian evidence. Their view that elevated male:female ratios (MFRs) (which are present, for instance, in China and India) are morally defensible is questioned on the basis that their analysis of this subject is too narrow. Furthermore, their contention that high MFRs will be self-correcting in a generation or so (due to the operation of the forces of supply and demand) is rejected on the basis of Asian evidence. In their view, a shortage of females relative to males will result in females being more highly valued and this will result in parents increasing their preference for girls rather than boys.

It is hypothesized that MFRs are likely to follow or have followed (at least in Asian countries) a Kuznets-like relationship as a consequence of economic development and growth. Structural and other economic changes brought about by these factors are much more important in explaining alterations in MFRs than the forces of gender-related supply and demand.

The possible implications for the marriage market of distorted sex ratios (e.g. the provision of dowries and bride prices) are investigated. It is found (principally on the basis of contrasting Chinese and Indian practices) that high MFRs do not necessarily result in a groom’s parents (or the groom) contributing more to marriage arrangements than the bride’s parents (or the bride). In China, the majority of the expenses associated with marriage are usually met by the bridegroom’s parents, whereas in India, most of these costs are normally met by the bride’s parents.¹ It becomes clear that social customs play a major role in determining the nature of marriage settlements.

It is also noted that the operation of marriage markets is changing as a result of economic development and technological changes, such as the availability of new information technology. Further change is also likely. Hence, there is a considerable scope for future interesting research about how the nature of the marriage market is altering in Asia, particularly in China and India.

1.4 An Abstract of Chapter 4: Prejudice Against Female Children: Theory and Survey Findings from Eastern India

This chapter outlines the way in which the economic unitary theory of the family can be applied to parental preference for sons rather than daughters and links this theory with the comparative access of boys and girls to human capital, e.g. education. It, therefore, extends the theoretical discussion in Chapter 2. Furthermore, it assesses the relevance of this theory in the light of completed surveys of wives in rural tribal belts in Eastern India. These surveys were undertaken in West Bengal in villages in which Santals are predominant and in Odisha in villages in which Kondhs dominate. Background is provided on the nature of these communities.

These surveys yield information about parental attitudes to the gender of their children and the treatment of sons compared to daughters. Findings about the following are reported:

• boy–girl preferences;

• whether daughters are kept home more frequently from school than sons;

• whether it is planned to give sons more education than daughters;

• whether, when food is in short supply, sons are given preference for access to it compared to daughters;

• whether sons are more likely to get medical care than daughters.

It was found that despite similar economic conditions in the Kondhdominated villages of Odisha compared to those in the Santal-dominated villages of West Bengal, preferences for sons rather than daughters (as well as discrimination against daughters in access to human capital) was significantly less marked in the former villages than the latter ones. It is argued that this is mainly due to cultural differences. Consequently, one cannot rely on economic explanations alone to explain the parental preferences for boys compared to girls and the discriminatory treatment of daughters compared to sons.

1.5 A Preview of Chapter 5: Gender Inequality Indices of the UN and their Application to Asian Countries

The aim of this chapter is to introduce the UN’s main indices of gender inequality, namely its Gender Inequality Index (GII) and its Gender Development Index (GDI), assess these, and apply them to Asian countries. First, the general attributes of these indices are identified and the relevance of their components is assessed. The cross-sectional analysis of GII and GDI values in relation to the per capita level of income of selected Asian nations is completed. Time series analysis of these indices for the same set of Asian nations follows and the results are discussed. It is found (using these inequality measures) that gender inequality in the selected Asian countries decreases as their Gross National Income per capita rises. The limitations of the data used to compute these incomes are highlighted. Attention is also brought to other GIIs, such as the Gender Equality Index (GEI) and the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI). None of the available indices of gender inequality are able to take account of all of the dimensions of gender inequality because gender inequality has numerous dimensions. Nevertheless, each measure has value because each provides insights into gender inequality from different perspectives.

1.6 An Outline of Chapter 6: Determinants of the Intra-Family Status of Wives: Theory and a Study in West Bengal

This chapter reports on and analyzes the results of a survey conducted in rural villages in West Bengal, India, designed to determine empirically the status (empowerment) of wives within their families and, in addition, identifies factors influencing their status and the impact of these factors on their status. The extent to which the results accord with predictions of economic theories of the family (developed mainly in Western countries) are assessed, with particular attention to bargaining theory. It is found that social (cultural) embedding limits the predictive value of these theories within the communities studied.

Several factors can be indicative of the status of wives within their families. Factors taken into account in this study are as follows:

• whether wives have any control over cash in their families;

• whether wives are restricted by their husbands in forming or joining social groups;

• whether wives are involved in family decisions generally;

• whether wives are involved in decisions about the future of their children.

The wives surveyed for this study resided in four separate villages in the Midnapore district of West Bengal. Santal tribes accounted for the majority of the individuals in these villages, with most of the other residents being scheduled caste Hindus. Some Santals continue to follow their traditional Sari religion whereas others are now followers of Hinduism. All the non-Santal respondents surveyed were followers of Hinduism.

The collected data (obtained from wives) are analyzed using ANOVA and Probit analysis. In applying ANOVA, the influences of the following variables on the status of wives are considered:

• whether the wife earns income from working in the fields of others;

• whether her husband is pleased to see her working outside for cash income;

• whether the family’s income is enough for two meals a day;

• the perceived relative economic status of her family;

• whether Santal or non-Santal;

• whether a tribal Sari, a tribal Hindu or a non-tribal Hindu;

• whether the wife’s family visits her frequently;

• whether the wife would receive support from her family if needed;

• whether she considers divorce to be possible.

In the Probit model, fewer variables are taken into account. The status variables are a subset of those used for ANOVA. They are given as follows:

• whether wives have any control over the use of cash;

• whether they are involved in family decisions;

• whether they are involved in decisions about their children’s future.

The chosen independent variables are simply as follows:

• the ratio of the wife’s contribution to family cash income relative to that of her husband;

• the ratio of the wife’s contribution to food for her children relative to that of her husband;

• the ratio of the wife’s contribution to cash income plus food for her children relative to that of her husband.

1.7 An Abstract of Chapter 7: Poverty and Economically Deprived Women and Children: Their Interdependence and Policy

In this chapter, factors are identified that (within the context of families) influence the occurrence of poverty among wives and their children. The extent of poverty suffered by wives and their children can be considerably greater than that experienced by their husbands. The discussion begins by considering the relevance of economic theories of the family to this topic. Examples are given of economic factors contributing to the economic disadvantage of daughters compar...

Table of contents

• Cover page
• Title page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• About the Author
• Preface
• Contents
• List of Tables
• List of Figures
• Chapter 1 Socioeconomics, Gender Inequality and Female Disadvantage: An Overview
• Chapter 2 Economic Theories of the Family and Gender Inequality
• Chapter 5 Gender Inequality Indices of the UN and their Application to Asian Countries
• Chapter 6 Determinants of the Intra-Family Status of Wives: Theory and A Study in West Bengal
• Chapter 7 Poverty and Economically Deprived Women and Children: Their Interdependence and Policy
• Chapter 8 Access to Capital and its Ownership: Implications for Gender Inequality
• Chapter 9 Human Resource Capital, Gender Inequality and Sustainable Development
• Chapter 10 Ecofeminism and Support for Sustainable Development and Conservation
• Chapter 11 Work and Gender Inequalities in Selected Asian Countries
• Chapter 12 The Abuse of Women by Men
• Chapter 13 Insights Based on Field Notes Compiled in Eastern India: Tribals, Gender Issues and Village Life
• Index