Fundamentals of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology provides a concise overview of the principles of dental radiology, emphasizing their application to clinical practice.
Distills foundational knowledge on oral radiology in an accessible guide
Uses a succinct, easy-to-follow approach
Focuses on practical applications for radiology information and techniques
Presents summaries of the most common osseous pathologic lesions and dental anomalies
Includes companion website with figures from the book in PowerPoint and x-ray puzzles
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Yes, you can access Fundamentals of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology by J. Sean Hubar in PDF and/or ePUB format, as well as other popular books in Medicine & Dentistry. We have over one million books available in our catalogue for you to explore.
The objective of this textbook is to offer the reader a concise summary of the fundamentals and principles of dental radiology. In addition, brief synopses are included of the more common osseous pathologic lesions and dental anomalies. This book is intended to be a handy resource for the student, the dental auxiliary and the practicing clinician.
What is dental radiology?
Dental radiology is both an art and a science. An art is a skill acquired by experience, study or observation and a science is a technique that is tested through scientific method. Scientific principles of physics, chemistry, mathematics and biology are integral to dental radiology. Capturing and viewing a digital dental image requires sophisticated technology, while the operator’s proper physical positioning of the intraoral receptor requires a skill that is based upon scientific principles. The art of dental radiology involves the interpretation of black and white images that often resemble ink blots. Deriving a differential diagnosis involves the application of the clinician’s knowledge, cognitive skills and accumulated experience. The term “radiograph” originally applied to an x‐ray image made visible on a processed piece of x‐ray film. A photograph is similar to a radiograph except it is taken with a light‐sensitive camera and printed on photographic paper. Today the term “radiograph” is used to describe an image whether it was acquired with x‐ray film or with a digital receptor. It is more accurate to use the term “x‐ray image” when viewing it on a monitor and “digital radiograph” when a hardcopy is viewed. In the future, “radiograph” should be updated to a more appropriate term.
What are x rays?
X rays are a form of energy belonging to the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Some of the members of the EM family include radio waves, microwave radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x‐ray radiation and gamma radiation. These examples are differentiated by their wavelength and frequency. A wavelength is defined as the distance between two identical points on consecutive waves (e.g. distance from one crest to the next crest) (Fig. A1). Longer wavelengths have lower frequencies and are considered to be less damaging to living tissues. Conversely, shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies and are considered to be more damaging to living tissues. One end of the EM spectrum includes the long wavelengths used for radio signal communications while at the short wavelength end of the spectrum is gamma radiation. The EM spectrum covers wavelengths, ranging from nanometers
to kilometers in length (Fig. A2). Dental x rays are 0.1 to 0.001 nanometers (nm) in length. For comparison purposes, dental x rays may be the size of a single atom while some radio waves are equivalent to the height of a tall building. As with all types of EM radiation, x rays are pure energy. They do not have any mass and because they have very short wavelengths, x rays can easily penetrate and potentially damage living tissues. All forms of EM radiation must not be confused with particulate radiation
, such as alpha
and beta radiation
. Particulate radiation is not discussed in this textbook.
Fig. A1 Diagrams showing wave pattern of electromagnetic radiation. A. High frequency equals short wavelength. B. Low frequency equals long wavelength.
Fig. A2 Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
The EM spectrum is divided into the non‐ionizing forms and the ionizing
forms of radiation. The boundary between non‐ionizing and ionizing radiation is not sharply delineated. Ionizing radiation is considered to begin with the shorter wavelength ultraviolet rays and the increasingly shorter wavelengths which include x rays and gamma rays. The longer wavelengths of ultraviolet rays and beyond which include microwaves, radio waves, etc. are all considered to be non‐ionizing forms of radiation. The difference is that ionizing radiation is powerful enough to knock an electron
out of its atomic orbit, while non‐ionizing radiation is not powerful enough to remove an electron. The removal of an electron from an atom is referred to as “ionization.” Exposure to ionizing radiation is recognized as being more hazardous to living tissue than non‐ionizing radiation.
Note: “X ray” is actually a noun composed of two separate words and it should only be hyphenated when it is used as an adjective, e.g. x‐ray tube. In addition, each individual unit of electromagnetic radiation is referred to as a photon
. Consequently, the correct term for x ray is x‐ray photon. In published literature, x‐ray photons are often incorrectly referred to as “x‐rays.”
In lay terms, x‐ray images reveal the different parts of our bodies or other matter in varying shades of black and white. Why? This is because skin, bone, teeth, fat and air absorb different quantities of radiation. Within the human body, the calcium in bones and teeth absorbs the most x rays. Tooth enamel is the most mineralized substance in the human body (over 90% mineralized). Consequently, mineralized structures such as teeth and bones appear as varying shades of white (i.e. radiopaque
) on dental images. Fat and other soft tissues absorb less radiation, and consequently they will look darker (i.e. radiolucent
) in comparison to bone. Air absorbs the least amount of x rays, so airways and sinuses typically look black in comparison to mineralized substances. The denser or thicker the material, the more x‐ray photons are absorbed by it. This results in a more radiopaque appearance on an x‐ray image. The thinner or less dense an object is, the fewer the number of x‐ray photons absorbed or blocked by it. Thus more x‐ray photons are able to ...
