Islam

History, Religion, and Politics

Tamara Sonn

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781118972311
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Islamic Theology

Now available in a fully-revised and updated third edition, Islam: History, Religion and Politics, provides a comprehensive and engaging introduction to the core teachings, historical development, and contemporary public struggles of Islam.

• Features a new chapter on the Arab Spring and the ongoing struggles for representative governance throughout the Muslim world
• Includes up-to-date analysis of the civil wars in Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen, including the rise of terrorist groups like Boko Haram and ISIS
• Spans Islamic history from the life of Muhammad and the birth of Islamic ideals, through Islam's phenomenal geographical expansion and cultural development, to the creation of modern states and its role in today's global society
• Written by a leading scholar of Islamic studies

1
Many Paths to One God: Establishing the Ideals

When Jews speak of their religion, they call it Judaism or the Judaic tradition. When Christians speak of their religious tradition, they often refer to it as Judeo-Christianity because Christianity was an organic outgrowth of Judaism. In the same way, Muslims refer to their religion as part of the Abrahamic or monotheistic tradition because Islam shares the history, basic beliefs, and values of Judaism and Christianity. Muslims consider Jews and Christians to be their spiritual siblings. They are among the ahl al-kitab, the “People of the Book” or “People of Scripture.” This is the family of monotheists, those who believe in one supreme God, the creator, the sustainer, the benevolent and merciful judge of all humanity. “The Book” is revelation contained in scripture; Muslims believe all revelation came from the only God, who revealed His will to humanity repeatedly, in various times and places to different groups.

The Quran

The Quran (“Koran” is the archaic spelling) is Islamic scripture, the book containing Islamic revelation. It is in Arabic, the language of the prophet through whom it was revealed, Muhammad (d. 632 CE). The term qur’an means “recitation,” reflecting the belief that the Quran is the word of God (Allah, from the Arabic al-ilah: the [one] god), not the word of the prophet who delivered it. Although the Quran was revealed (or “sent down” [munzal, in Arabic]) in the seventh century CE, Muslims believe that it is actually timeless. As the word of God, it is co-eternal with God. Like God, it has always existed. It therefore was not created but was revealed word for word in the Arabic language at a particular time, through God’s final messenger, Muhammad. The Quran says that its specific words reflect a divine archetype of revelation, which it calls “the preserved tablet” (al-lawh al-mahfuz, 85:22). Although anthropomorphic language (using human traits to describe God) is recognized as only symbolic in Islam, still it is not uncommon to hear the Quran described as reflecting the eternal “will” or “mind” of God. However, it is described, the Quran is considered eternal.

The term qur’an is sometimes interpreted as “reading,” even though Prophet Muhammad is described by the Quran as unlettered or illiterate (7:157, 62:2). Rather than “reading” a message, Prophet Muhammad is described as delivering (or “reciting”) a message that God had imprinted on his heart (e.g., 26:194). At one point, the Quran refers to Gabriel (Jibril) as the one “who has brought it [revelation] down upon your heart” (2:97). As a result, traditional interpreters claim that the angel Gabriel was the medium through whom Muhammad received God’s revelation.

The Quran uses the term qur’an seventy times, sometimes generically referring to “recitation” but usually referring to “revelation.” The Quran commonly refers to itself as simply “the Book” (al-kitab), a term used hundreds of times to refer to scripture, including the Torah and the Gospels. Muslims therefore frequently refer to the Quran as The Book. They usually use adjectives like “holy,” “noble,” or “glorious” to show their respect for the Quran. They annually commemorate the beginning of its revelation on the Night of Power (or Destiny [laylat al-qadr]), during the last ten days of Ramadan, which is the month when observant Muslims fast from sunrise until sunset.

The Quran consists of 114 chapters, called suras (in Arabic, surah; pl.: suwar). The verses of the chapters are called ayat (sing.: ayah). The chapters range in length from 3 to 286 verses. The first sura is short, but the remaining suras are arranged from longer to shorter (i.e., in descending order of length), rather than in chronological order.

Chapters of the Quran may be referred to by number, but each also has a name, such as “The Opening” (Sura 1), “Women” (Sura 4), and “Repentance” (Sura 9). These names were ascribed after the Quran was canonized (established in its authoritative form) and typically derive from major references in the chapters. All but one sura (Sura 9) begins with the phrase “In the name of God the Merciful and Compassionate.” Twenty-nine suras are also preceded by a letter or brief series of Arabic letters, whose meaning is unclear. Some scholars believe they refer to elements within the sura itself, some believe they refer to early organizational components of the suras or served as mnemonic devices, and some believe these letters have mystical or spiritual meanings. Whatever their significance, these letters are considered to be part of the revelation itself.

People reading the Quran for the first time will notice that it often speaks in the first person (“I” or “We,” used interchangeably) and may assume that this usage indicates the voice of Muhammad. But Muslims believe the Quran is revealed in the voice of God. For example, in the verse about the first night of revelation, the Quran says, “Surely We sent it [revelation] down on the Night of Power” (97:1). In this voice, the Quran frequently addresses Muhammad, instructing him to “say” or “tell” people certain things, sometimes in response to specific issues. For example, when people doubted Muhammad’s role as prophet, the Quran instructs him: “Say, ‘O People, indeed I am a clear warner to you. Those who believe and do good works, for them is forgiveness and generous blessing’” (22:49–50). The Quran also offers advice to Muhammad. When people accused him of being a mere poet or even a fortune-teller, the Quran says, “Do they say that you have forged [the Quran]? Say, ‘If I have forged it, my crimes are my own; but I am innocent of what you do’” (11:35). The Quran also offers encouragement to Muhammad when his efforts seem futile: “Have we not opened your heart and relieved you of the burden that was breaking your back?” (94:1–3). At other times, the Quran speaks directly to the people about Muhammad. Concerning the issue of the authenticity of his message, the Quran addresses the community, saying, “The heart [of the Prophet] was not deceived. Will you then dispute with him about what he saw?” (53:11–12). Many of the Quran’s verses seem to be in the voice of Muhammad, addressing the community with the word of God and referring to God in the third person. For instance, we are told, “There is no compulsion in religion. Right has been distinguished from wrong. Whoever rejects idols and believes in God has surely grasped the strongest, unbreakable bond. And God hears and knows” (2:256). But such verses are generally embedded in longer passages that begin with the divine command to “tell them” the information thus revealed.

To whom was the Quran addressed? Although its message is meant for all times and places, the Quran’s immediate audience was the community of seventh-century Arabia, in which Prophet Muhammad lived. That is why the Quran explains that it is purposely revealed in the Arabic language. Interestingly, and uniquely among monotheistic scriptures, the Quran assumes both males and females among its audience, and frequently addresses the concerns of both. For example, it tells us that God is prepared to forgive and richly reward all good people, both male and female:

Men who submit [to God] and women who submit [to God],

Men who believe and women who believe,

Men who obey and women who obey,

Men who are honest and women who are honest,

Men who are steadfast and women who are steadfast,

Men who are humble and women who are humble,

Men who give charity and women who give charity,

Men who fast and women who fast,

Men who are modest and women who are modest,

Men and women who remember God often.

(33:35)

Still, the overall audience for the scripture is humanity as a whole. The Quran refers to itself as “guidance for humanity” (hudan li’l-nas).

The Quran was revealed through Prophet Muhammad to the community in seventh-century Arabia over a period of twenty-two to twenty-three years, but it was recorded and canonized soon after Muhammad’s death. During his lifetime, Muhammad’s followers sometimes recorded his pronouncements; some even memorized and transmitted them orally. After his death, and on the deaths of some of those who memorized the Quran (huffaz), the Prophet’s companions decided to establish a written version of the Quran so that it could be preserved and transmitted accurately to future generations. This process was begun by a close companion of Muhammad, Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655 CE), who collected written records of Quranic verses soon after the death of the Prophet. The third successor to the Prophet (caliph), Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656 CE), is credited with commissioning Zayd and other respected scholars to establish the authoritative written version of the Quran based on the written and oral records. This was accomplished within twenty years of Muhammad’s death. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated among various Muslim communities, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. Because of the existence of various dialects and the lack of vowel markers in early Arabic, slight variations in the reading of the authoritative text were possible. To avoid confusion, markers indicating specific vowel sounds were introduced into the language by the end of ninth century, but seven slightly variant readings (qira’at), or methods of recitation, are acceptable.

Copies of the Quran were produced by hand until the modern era. The first printed version was produced in Rome in 1530; a second printed version was produced in Hamburg in 1694. The first critical edition produced in Europe was done by Gustav Flügel in 1834. The numbering of the verses varies slightly between the standard 1925 Egyptian edition favored by many Muslim scholars and the 1834 edition established by Flügel, used by many Western scholars. (Editions from Pakistan and India often follow the Egyptian standard edition, with the exception that they count the opening phrase, “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate,” of each sura as the first verse.) The variations in verse numbering comprise only a few verses and reflect differing interpretations of where certain verses end.

The Quran is considered to be authentic only in Arabic. Even non-Arabic speakers—the vast majority of Muslims—pray in Arabic. Although Arabs comprise less than one-third of the world’s Muslim population, the Arabic language still serves as a symbol of unity throughout the Muslim world. Nevertheless, numerous translations of the Quran have been produced. The first Latin translation was done in the twelfth century, commissioned by Peter the Venerable, abbot of the monastery of Cluny in France. It was published in Switzerland in the sixteenth century. Translations (or, more accurately, “interpretations” of the Quran) are now readily available in virtually all written languages and on the Internet. Still, Quranic calligraphy remains not only the highest form of visual art but a spiritual exercise. Beautifully hand-wrought copies of Quranic verses adorn many Muslim homes—in ink on paper, stitched into fabric, or carved into wood, metal or stone. It is also common for Muslims to wear verses of the Quran in lockets or on necklaces. And each year during the pilgrimage season, a special cloth embroidered in gold with Quranic verses is created to drape the Kaaba (the sanctuary in Mecca which is the object of the annual Islamic pilgrimage, the hajj).

Many pious Muslims maintain belief in the miraculous power of the words of the Quran itself. Carrying a small replica of Quranic verses is popularly believed to offer protection against illness or accident. Yet by far the most popular way to experience the Quran is by listening to it. The art of Quranic recitation (tajwid) is highly developed and extremely demanding. A student must memorize the Quran, in any of the seven pronunciation and intonation patterns (qira’at) mentioned previously, understand its meaning (even if one is not an Arabic speaker), and observe a number of rules dealing with spiritual attitudes (such as humility), purity, and posture (such as facing the direction of Mecca, if possible). So important is the experience of hearing the Quran properly and reverently recited that learning Quran recitation is traditionally considered a communal obligation (meaning that not everyone in a given community is required to learn Quran recitation, but enough people must do so to ensure that there are sufficient Quran reciters to serve the community).

Gifted Quran reciters are highly respected throughout the Muslim world. In recent years, a number of women have joined the ranks of popular Quran reciters. But even Muslims who are not able to recite the Quran demonstrate their respect for the Book by making sure they are in a state of spiritual purity when they handle it. As in Orthodox Judaism, blood and o...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Table of Contents
• Foreword
• Preface
• Maps
• 1 Many Paths to One God: Establishing the Ideals
• 2 The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Service of God and Humanity: The Golden Age
• 3 Division and Reorganization
• 4 Colonialism and Reform
• 5 Contemporary Islam: The Challenges of Democratization and Complications of Global Politics
• Further Reading
• Index
• End User License Agreement