What was the Abolitionist Movement?
MA, History (University of Edinburgh)
Date Published: 09.09.2024,
Last Updated: 09.09.2024
Share this article
Defining the movement
In her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), American author and abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe illustrates the horrors of slavery, shedding light on the atrocities committed on enslaved men, women, and children. Tom, the main protagonist, tries to comfort a fellow enslaved person after her child has been taken from her and sold. This child will then be “trained” and resold at a high price:
Tom had watched the whole transaction from first to last, and had a perfect understanding of its results. [...] His very soul bled within him for what seemed to him the wrongs of the poor suffering thing that lay like a crushed reed on the boxes; the feeling, living, bleeding, yet immortal thing, which American state law coolly classes with the bundles, and bales, and boxes, among which she is lying. Tom drew near, and tried to say something; but she only groaned. Honestly, and with tears running down his own cheeks, he spoke of a heart of love in the skies, of a pitying Jesus, and an eternal home; but the ear was deaf with anguish, and the palsied heart could not feel. (Stowe, 1852, [2012])
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Tom had watched the whole transaction from first to last, and had a perfect understanding of its results. [...] His very soul bled within him for what seemed to him the wrongs of the poor suffering thing that lay like a crushed reed on the boxes; the feeling, living, bleeding, yet immortal thing, which American state law coolly classes with the bundles, and bales, and boxes, among which she is lying. Tom drew near, and tried to say something; but she only groaned. Honestly, and with tears running down his own cheeks, he spoke of a heart of love in the skies, of a pitying Jesus, and an eternal home; but the ear was deaf with anguish, and the palsied heart could not feel. (Stowe, 1852, [2012])
Through her emotive prose, Stowe appeals to her readers to stand up against slavery as she illustrates the grim realities of slavery and provides an accurate and disturbing depiction of what occurred at slave auctions. Stowe was one of many anti-slavery activists who urged others to join the abolitionist movement.
The abolitionist movement (1830-1870) was dedicated to ending slavery in the United States. The movement was influenced by the efforts to end slavery in the United Kingdom. Slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire with the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, encouraging abolitionists around the world to mobilize and demand change.
Abolitionists spoke out against slavery in the 19th century and called for the complete emancipation of enslaved people. Early abolitionists were white Americans, usually religious, though many leaders in the abolitionist movement were free Black men and women. Abolitionists recognized slavery as the bane of American society and worked to free enslaved people and abolish slave ownership. They spoke out about the evils and immorality of slavery through writing, speeches, activism, and petitions. Abolitionists wanted slavery to be made illegal in the South and even feared slavery might continue expanding into more and more territories across the United States of America. They faced angry mobs, harassment, and even death at the hands of pro-slavery supporters.
This guide will discuss major events during the abolitionist movement and its key leaders, as well as the legacy of abolitionism.
Timeline of the movement
Anti-slavery sentiment can be traced back hundreds of years before the abolitionist movement. Beginning with the Atlantic slave trade, this section of the guide will discuss significant events that emboldened anti-slavery activists to continue working towards the complete abolishment of slavery in America.
The Atlantic slave trade
The Atlantic slave trade was the forced movement of enslaved Africans to the Americas that began in the 16th century and continued into the 19th century. Around 12-15 million people were forced to leave Africa and endure slavery in the Americas and European colonies, though the number of enslaved Africans could be much higher. At least 2 million enslaved people died during transportation from disease, malnourishment, starvation, grief, suicide, and resistance during the forced journey from Africa to the Americas, known as the Middle Passage.
In Slavery at Sea (2016), Sowande M. Mustakeem explains that physicians and surgeons used African bodies as test subjects and were obsessed with preserving enslaved peoples’ bodies; this was to ensure that their bodies were “profitable” and “desirable” when the ship landed in the New World:
Seamen and physicians were often limited in the restorative care extended to bondpeople due to constrained resources and unfamiliarity with treating African bodies. The presence of slave ship surgeons was never based on humanitarianism, but served instead as a catalyst to obtain wealth and professional advancement toward furthering their understandings of medical treatment. Sickness prevailed belowdecks on slave ships, taking lives and yielding important stories of struggle that shaped the final moments of many bondpeople's lives.
Sowande M. Mustakeem
Seamen and physicians were often limited in the restorative care extended to bondpeople due to constrained resources and unfamiliarity with treating African bodies. The presence of slave ship surgeons was never based on humanitarianism, but served instead as a catalyst to obtain wealth and professional advancement toward furthering their understandings of medical treatment. Sickness prevailed belowdecks on slave ships, taking lives and yielding important stories of struggle that shaped the final moments of many bondpeople's lives.
Many of these enslaved Africans were forced to work on plantations in the Antebellum South, producing tobacco, cotton, and sugar, making plantation owners extremely wealthy. You can learn more about life in the Antebellum South in our study guide “What is the Southern Renaissance?”
Enslaved Africans faced physical, mental, and sexual abuse, endured rape, and were often murdered at the hands of their “owners.”
Early days of the movement
At the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade, activists spoke out against the enslavement of African people and this sentiment continued for over 300 years. In the early 19th century, American clergyman Robert Finley formed the American Colonization Society. The society was born out of the idea that formerly enslaved people were not assimilating into the US and could potentially start rebellions and escape to freedom. Therefore, the society petitioned for people who had been emancipated from slavery and freeborn Black people in the US to be sent back to Africa. Thousands of enslaved people were sent to West Africa in the coming decades. Many abolitionists opposed the society, as they argued that Black families had lived in the US for generations and were settled there. To the dismay of abolitionists, Black families were also heavily pressured into moving to Africa. The society declined in the 1840s due to outrage from abolitionists, as well as a lack of funding.
In 1820, when the Missouri Compromise passed, abolitionists were further outraged. The Compromise was a federal law allowing Missouri to become a slave state while Maine would become a free state. At the time, there were 11 slave states in the South and 11 free states in the North. With Missouri becoming a slave slate, there would be an imbalance of power, so Congress made Maine a free state to ensure balance and equal representation for both the North and the South. The passing of the Missouri Compromise ushered in a new dawn for abolitionists as they realized that they would have to take substantial strides to ensure the freedom of enslaved people. By 1830, abolitionists had created a movement that was more organized and radical. The movement took off in Northern states, though abolitionists in the South also worked for the anti-slavery cause.
The abolitionist movement coincided with the Second Great Awakening, which was a revival of Protestant ideology and theology. Church membership skyrocketed as people sought solace in religious revivals and emotional sermons. Religious abolitionists believed that slavery was a sin and that God would punish those who owned enslaved people. Anti-slavery activists like Harriet Beecher Stowe used religious connotations in their speeches as part of their abolitionist rhetoric.
According to Kellie Carter Jackson in Force and Freedom, abolitionists were inspired by the awakening and the social reforms that followed:
During the 1830s, the formal beginning of the abolitionist movement emerged out of a sense of religious fervor and optimism. Spiritual revival and a belief that Christ’s return was imminent engendered a second Great Awakening, which influenced the belief among abolitionists that moral suasion coupled with nonviolent resistance was the best and surest way to abolish slavery. Many of the early abolitionists believed that moral suasion would work to end slavery. (2019)
Kellie Carter Jackson
During the 1830s, the formal beginning of the abolitionist movement emerged out of a sense of religious fervor and optimism. Spiritual revival and a belief that Christ’s return was imminent engendered a second Great Awakening, which influenced the belief among abolitionists that moral suasion coupled with nonviolent resistance was the best and surest way to abolish slavery. Many of the early abolitionists believed that moral suasion would work to end slavery. (2019)
Inspired by the Second Great Awakening, renowned abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison believed that the institution of slavery contradicted Scripture and it was necessary to rid the country of the evil practice. He supported non-violence within the abolitionist movement and told fellow abolitionists to resist violence in the face of mobs and attacks.
Reactions to anti-slavery legislation
In 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act was passed by Congress, making it compulsory for citizens to capture enslaved people on the run and return them to their “owners.” This made the Underground Railroad (a network of secret routes and safe houses to help enslaved people escape to freedom) even more treacherous, thus inspiring more abolitionists to join the movement and assist enslaved people in gaining freedom. (You will learn more about the Underground Railroad in our section on Harriet Tubman, further down in the study guide.)
In 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed, which created the territories of Nebraska and Kansas. The Act gave settlers the authority to decide whether or not slavery would be legal in these territories. This created animosity between pro-slavery supporters and abolitionists as both groups resided in the territories. In 1856, pro-slavery supporters attacked a city established by Northern abolitionists. John Brown and fellow abolitionists retaliated, resulting in the deaths of five pro-slavery supporters. A few years later, Brown and his followers attempted to capture the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry in Virginia to arm southern enslaved people and lead a rebellion. This was unsuccessful and Brown was later hanged for treason.
In 1857, abolitionists were once again embroiled in the ruling in the Dred-Scott decision, which stated that Black people, whether enslaved or free, were not legal citizens of the United States. They would not be granted the same legal rights as American citizens. Southerners were outraged that Northerners would not obey the decision in Dred-Scott as law, thereby causing many Southerners to lose faith in the legal system and the United States government:
[... ] the more general failure of the antislavery forces to retreat in the face of an authoritative decision rendered by the Supreme Court fueled the Southern conviction that Northerners were determined to run roughshod over protections that Southerners believed were provided to them by the Constitution. [...] Against this background, Southerners increasingly viewed the doctrine of nonintervention as insufficient to protect their interests. (Earl M. Maltz, Dred Scott and the Politics of Slavery, 2024).
Earl M. Maltz
[... ] the more general failure of the antislavery forces to retreat in the face of an authoritative decision rendered by the Supreme Court fueled the Southern conviction that Northerners were determined to run roughshod over protections that Southerners believed were provided to them by the Constitution. [...] Against this background, Southerners increasingly viewed the doctrine of nonintervention as insufficient to protect their interests. (Earl M. Maltz, Dred Scott and the Politics of Slavery, 2024).
The Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation
In 1861, the American Civil War began. The war, which lasted until April 1865, occurred between the Union in the North and the Confederate states in the South, which had seceded from the Union:
The official beginning of the American Civil War is regarded as 12 April 1861, when Confederate forces fired on the Southern-based Union forces at Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor. In response, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion. A total of eleven states came to comprise the Confederate States of America – South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas. Lincoln invoked the writ of habeas corpus and declared martial law before Missouri and Kentucky could join the Confederacy. (Kat Smutz, The American Civil War, 2011)
Kat Smutz
The official beginning of the American Civil War is regarded as 12 April 1861, when Confederate forces fired on the Southern-based Union forces at Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor. In response, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion. A total of eleven states came to comprise the Confederate States of America – South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas. Lincoln invoked the writ of habeas corpus and declared martial law before Missouri and Kentucky could join the Confederacy. (Kat Smutz, The American Civil War, 2011)
The secession of the Confederate States of America occurred due to a number of factors, including the issue of State’s rights (which Southerners were in favor of), interpretations of the Constitution and laws like the Dred-Scott decision, and slavery.
In 1862, as the war raged in the North and South, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which called for the freedom of the millions of enslaved people in the Southern states effective 1 January 1863:
And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. (Abraham Lincoln, The Emancipation Proclamation, [2007]).
Abraham Lincoln
And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. (Abraham Lincoln, The Emancipation Proclamation, [2007]).
Later in 1865, with the end of the Civil War, the proclamation was ratified to include the Thirteenth Amendment, which officially abolished slavery across all of America. In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was also ratified to grant citizenship and equal protection under the law to people who had been formerly enslaved and in 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment passed, which granted suffrage to Black men in the United States. However, barriers to Black men's voting continued into the twentieth century, which you can learn more about in our study guide “What was the American Civil Rights Movement?”
The passing of these amendments signaled the success of abolitionists who had worked tirelessly for decades to ensure enslaved people would be free and freed Black people would be granted the same rights and privileges as the white people they lived alongside.
Key leaders of the movement
While there were many leaders during the abolitionist movement, men and women, freed and enslaved, we will highlight three important figures who helped pave the way for freedom for enslaved people: Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth.
Frederick Douglass
Frederick Douglass was born into slavery around 1818 in Maryland and was a prominent figure in the abolitionist movement. At the age of six, Douglass was sent to work on the Wye House plantation in Maryland. He was then transferred to work in Baltimore, where he learned the alphabet. Douglass taught himself how to read and write and began teaching other enslaved people how to read the Bible. When word got out that Douglass was teaching enslaved people how to read and write, he was transferred to a new “owner,” Edward Covey, who brutally whipped Douglass regularly. In 1838, Douglass finally escaped Covey’s farm and moved to New York, where he stayed in an abolitionist safe house. He married a freed Black woman from Baltimore named Anna Murray later that same year.
Douglass and his wife moved to Massachusetts, where he began attending abolitionist movement meetings and learned the teachings of William Lloyd Garrison. He started addressing his time as an enslaved person and his harrowing escape to freedom in speeches and writing. He traveled throughout the United States and abroad, educating others about the evils of slavery.
In 1845, Douglass’s autobiography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, was published. Here, Douglass details life as an enslaved man, including the abuse and inner turmoil enslaved people endured:
The motto which I adopted when I started from slavery was this—"Trust no man!" I saw in every white man an enemy, and in almost every colored man cause for distrust. It was a most painful situation; and, to understand it, one must needs experience it, or imagine himself in similar circumstances. Let him be a fugitive slave in a strange land—a land given up to be the hunting-ground for slaveholders—whose inhabitants are legalized kidnappers—where he is every moment subjected to the terrible liability of being seized upon by his fellowmen, as the hideous crocodile seizes upon his prey! [...] (1845, [2009]).
Frederick Douglass
The motto which I adopted when I started from slavery was this—"Trust no man!" I saw in every white man an enemy, and in almost every colored man cause for distrust. It was a most painful situation; and, to understand it, one must needs experience it, or imagine himself in similar circumstances. Let him be a fugitive slave in a strange land—a land given up to be the hunting-ground for slaveholders—whose inhabitants are legalized kidnappers—where he is every moment subjected to the terrible liability of being seized upon by his fellowmen, as the hideous crocodile seizes upon his prey! [...] (1845, [2009]).
In 1847, when Douglass returned to the United States after traveling to Ireland and Great Britain where he gave impassioned speeches and met with leaders, he began publishing the North Star, an abolitionist newspaper. In 1852, he gave a speech later known as “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?”, in which he called out American citizens, noting the hypocrisy of celebrating Independence Day when people are enslaved in their own country.
Douglass continued speaking out against slavery during the Civil War and openly supported voting rights for freed Black Americans. He was an advocate for women’s rights, attending women’s rights conventions and meetings. For the remainder of his life, Douglass continued giving speeches pertaining to the rights of Black people and women and participated in activism for minority groups.
Harriet Tubman
Tubman, born Araminta Ross, was an enslaved person from birth who escaped captivity and later became a leading abolitionist. As an enslaved person, Tubman was forced to start working at age 5, when she was “rented out” as a nursemaid and endured traumatizing abuse. At age 12, Tubman stood in the way of an overseer to prevent him from striking an enslaved fugitive. She was scarred by the incident and suffered from ailments related to the injury for the rest of her life.
In September 1849, Tubman and her two brothers escaped the plantation, though her brothers later returned. She was able to travel to Pennsylvania on the Underground Railroad, where she achieved freedom. As previously mentioned, the Underground Railroad wasn’t an actual railroad, but rather a network that included routes, people, homes, businesses, and churches that assisted in bringing fugitive enslaved people to freedom in the North. They traveled at night, attempting to hide from captors looking for runaway enslaved people. Thousands of enslaved people escaped bondage with the help of abolitionists who risked their own lives for justice.
Tubman became a “conductor” along the Underground Railroad, guiding fugitive enslaved people along the route towards the North for many years. She returned to the South to help family members escape to freedom along the Railroad. She befriended other abolitionists, including Douglass, and was hailed for her services along the Railroad. Tubman is credited with helping at least 70 people achieve freedom, putting herself in danger all in an effort to stand up against the barbaric institution of slavery.
According to Kerry Walters in Harriet Tubman (2019), Tubman broke conventional gender standards in her work along the Railroad, showing men and women both what women were capable of:
When leading slaves to freedom, Tubman insisted on their absolute obedience to her instructions. She carried a pistol with her and let it be known to the people she guided that she was more than willing to use it against slave catchers or against any fugitive who jeopardized the safety of others. She reconnoitered terrain; slept on the ground in foul weather; stole corn and grain from fields; and, in general, played the part of a scout behind enemy lines as she guided slaves to liberty.
Kerry Walters
When leading slaves to freedom, Tubman insisted on their absolute obedience to her instructions. She carried a pistol with her and let it be known to the people she guided that she was more than willing to use it against slave catchers or against any fugitive who jeopardized the safety of others. She reconnoitered terrain; slept on the ground in foul weather; stole corn and grain from fields; and, in general, played the part of a scout behind enemy lines as she guided slaves to liberty.
During the Civil War, she was recruited to assist fugitive enslaved people and worked as a cook and nurse. She then was recruited to be a spy for the Union Army, informing the Union about Confederate Army plans and supply routes and helping recruit Black soldiers to fight for the Union.
Later, Tubman settled in New York and married a former enslaved man. Until her death, she continued supporting people in her community and advocated for women’s rights, including women’s suffrage.
Sojourner Truth
Born into slavery in New York in 1797, Truth, or Isabella Baumfree, became a renowned abolitionist and women’s rights activist. She was a devout Christian and maintained her faith despite the trauma she faced. Around the age of nine, she was sold at an auction and was “re-sold” twice over the next few years. When she was a young adult, Truth was promised freedom by the Dumont family who “owned” her. However, when they rescinded their offer, an infuriated Truth escaped with her infant daughter, leaving behind her other children who were still bound to the Dumont family. Truth and her daughter were taken in by the Van Wagenen family who let them live freely and essentially paid off the Dumont family when they came searching for her and her daughter.
Truth was the first Black woman to sue a white man and win when the Dumont family illegally sold her young son. She regained custody of him and in 1829, moved to New York City to work for evangelical preachers. By 1843, Truth had dedicated her life to speaking out against slavery and spreading the Gospel. She also began addressing women’s rights issues, proclaiming that women should be treated fairly and equally as women were also made in the image and likeness of God.
In her autobiography The Narrative of Sojourner Truth (1850), dictated to Olive Gilbert, Truth examines her life as an enslaved woman and later a freed Black woman, detailing her struggles and her faith journey, including her journey to freedom:
As she gained the summit of a high hill, a considerable distance from her master's, the sun offended her by coming forth in all his pristine splendor. She thought it never was so light before; indeed, she thought it much too light. She stopped to look about her, and ascertain if her pursuers were yet in sight. No one appeared, and, for the first time, the question came up for settlement, 'Where, and to whom, shall I go?' ([2021])
Sojourner Truth
As she gained the summit of a high hill, a considerable distance from her master's, the sun offended her by coming forth in all his pristine splendor. She thought it never was so light before; indeed, she thought it much too light. She stopped to look about her, and ascertain if her pursuers were yet in sight. No one appeared, and, for the first time, the question came up for settlement, 'Where, and to whom, shall I go?' ([2021])
In 1851, at a women’s rights convention in Ohio, Truth gave a speech that later became known as the “Ain't I a Woman?” address. She spoke openly and freely about minority oppression, supporting rights for Black women and justice for Black people. You can learn more about this in our study guide on Black feminism.
Like Tubman, Truth helped recruit Black men to fight alongside the Union Army and supported the National Freedman’s Relief Association by collecting donations for Black people escaping slavery. She petitioned for jobs for freed Black people and spoke out against the discrimination Black people faced, even outside the South. Until her death, Truth supported women’s suffrage and rights for both Black men and women.
Legacy of the movement
The abolitionist movement left a lasting impression on the minds of Black people in the United States. Inspired by their forefathers and foremothers, leaders of the American Civil Rights Movement in the mid-20th century used similar tactics to petition for justice for Black Americans. Similarly, women’s rights groups were inspired by the work of the abolitionists, especially as leaders in the abolitionist movement spoke out against oppression and discrimination. While there is still work to be done regarding equality for Black people the abolitionists set a solid example for human rights activists working towards an equal, fair, and open world.
Further reading on Perlego
Jacksonian and Antebellum Age (2008) edited by Mark R. Cheathem
The Most Absolute Abolition (2022) by Jesse Olsavsky
Female Abolitionists (2021) edited by Bob Blaisdell
The Abolitionist Movement (2019) by Tim McNeese
The Underground Railroad (2015) by Mary Ellen Snodgrass
To Plead Our Own Cause (2014) by Christopher Cameron
The Weston Sisters (2014) by Lee V. Chambers
The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (2009) by Gerda Lerner
What was the abolitionist movement in simple terms?
What did the abolitionists do?
Who are the key figures of the abolitionist movement?
What is the legacy of the movement?
Bibliography
Daley, J. (2013) History’s Greatest Speeches. Dover Publications. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/112576
Douglass, F. (2009) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave. The Floating Press. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/1302561
Jackson, K. C. (2019) Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence. University of Pennsylvania Press. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/876405
Lincoln, A. (2007) The Emancipation Proclamation. Perlego. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/1729998
Maltz, E. (2024) Dred Scott and the Politics of Slavery. University Press of Kansas. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/4371289
Mustakeem, S. (2016) Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage. University of Illinois Press. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/2382585
Smutz, K. (2011) The American Civil War: History in an Hour. HarperPress. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/697823
Stowe, H. B. (2012) Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Dover Publications. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/110126
Truth, S. (2021) The Narrative of Sojourner Truth. Dreamscape Media. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/2787582
Walters, K. (2019) Harriet Tubman: A Life in American History. ABC-CLIO. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/4183226
MA, History (University of Edinburgh)
Hannah Hamill has a PGDE in Secondary Education (History) from the University of Glasgow and a Master’s degree in History from the University of Edinburgh. She also received a Bachelor’s degree in English from Belmont University. Her research interests include The Troubles in Northern Ireland, Medieval Britain, the American Civil War, and immigration to the southern United States. Her dissertation examined loyalist and republican women’s involvement during The Troubles.