Neuropsychology

11 Key excerpts on "Neuropsychology"

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  eBook - ePub

  Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessment

  • Nancy Hebben, William Milberg(Authors)
  • 2009(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Neuropsychology is usually broadly defined as the study of brain-behavior relationships. Of course, this definition does not capture the multiplicity of questions and approaches that have been used to explore how the central nervous system represents, organizes, and generates the infinite range of human capabilities and actions. Modern Neuropsychology includes the study of the classic problems of psychology—attention, learning, perception, cognition, personality, and psychopathology—using techniques that include the methods of experimental psychology as well as the methodologies of test construction and psychometrics. Its scientific palate includes such state-of-the-art technologies as high-resolution structural and functional neuroimaging and other techniques such as computational modeling, and it is beginning to be integrated with genomics and other advanced biological technologies such as proteomics and metabalomics. This book presents some of the core concepts of the particular discipline of clinical neuropsychological assessment. According to a consortium of representatives of a number of professional neuropsychological organizations that convened in 1997 in Houston, Texas, clinical Neuropsychology can be defined as “the application of assessment and intervention principles based on the scientific study of human behavior across the lifespan as it relates to normal and abnormal functioning of the central nervous system” (Hannay et al., 1998, p. 161). In practice, this translates into using standardized psychological tests, which are usually designed to assess various aspects of human cognition, ability, or skill, to provide information to a variety of clinical questions about the central nervous system and behavior. Less often, tests of personality or affective behavior have been adapted as neuropsychological instruments.

  In practice, the question of “normal versus abnormal functioning of the central nervous system” (Hannay et al., 1998, p. 161) is posed in an extremely broad range of clinical situations that includes not only the assessment of the consequences of diseases and physical damage to the central nervous system, but also the consequences of psychiatric conditions in which central nervous system involvement is assumed but not well defined. In some cases, the central nervous system function in question may be abnormal because of a neurochemical rather than a structural abnormality, as might be the case in some metabolic disorders, or because of the presence of a prescription or street pharmacological agent. Neuropsychological assessment is also increasingly being used to assess variations in early development that may be a reflection of variations in the rate of normal maturational processes rather than definable pathology (at least currently). The latter has become so common as a source of clinical referrals for neuropsychological assessment that a new subspecialty known as educational or school Neuropsychology has emerged and is becoming an increasingly important part of the role of school-based practitioners of psychology. To capture the breadth of these clinical questions, we use the term brain dysfunction

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  eBook - ePub

  Cognitive Neuropsychology

  A Clinical Introduction

  • Rosaleen A. McCarthy, Elizabeth K. Warrington(Authors)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  1 Introduction to Cognitive Neuropsychology Publisher Summary This chapter presents an introduction to cognitive Neuropsychology. The term cognitive Neuropsychology is applied to the analysis of those handicaps in human cognitive function that result from brain injury. Cognitive Neuropsychology is essentially interdisciplinary, drawing both on neurology and on cognitive psychology for insights into the cerebral organization of cognitive skills and abilities. Cognitive function is the ability to use and integrate basic capacities such as perception, language, actions, memory, and thought. The focus of clinical cognitive Neuropsychology is on the many different types of highly selective impairments of cognitive function that are observed in individual patients following brain damage. The functional analysis of patients with selective deficits provides a very clear window through which one can observe the organization and procedures of normal cognition. Clinical cognitive Neuropsychology has been successful in demonstrating a large number of dissociations between the subcomponents of cognitive skills. This enables to conclude that such components are dependent on distinct neural systems. Introduction Damage to the brain often has tragic consequences for the individual. It can affect those basic skills and abilities which are so necessary for normal everyday life and which are largely taken for granted. The rather hybrid term cognitive Neuropsychology is applied to the analysis of those handicaps in human cognitive function which result from brain injury. Cognitive Neuropsychology is essentially interdisciplinary, drawing both on neurology and on cognitive psychology for insights into the cerebral organisation of cognitive skills and abilities. By cognitive function is meant the ability to use and integrate basic capacities such as perception, language, actions, memory, and thought

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  Neurobehavioral Toxicology: Neurological and Neuropsychological Perspectives, Volume I

  Foundations and Methods

  • Stanley Berent, James W. Albers(Authors)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Taylor & Francis

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 6 , for instance, the nervous system can be conceptualized in terms of laterality as well as levels, i.e., supratentorial, posterior fossa, spinal, and peripheral. Neuropsychology can contribute importantly in the determination of abnormality. Neuro-psychological test results, for example, can help localize an abnormality within the CNS, once it has been identified, by differentiating diffuse or generalized impairment from focal involvement, distinguishing probable acute or subacute from chronic disorders, and identifying progressive from resolving conditions. Psychopathology (e.g., major affective or thought disorders) and other psychological factors (e.g., motivation, coping style) are also addressed by Neuropsychology. Since the symptoms of psychopathology often mimic neurological disease, the neuropsychologist may be looked to as the primary clinician to answer questions pertaining to the effects of such disorders on the patient's clinical presentation.

  The brain regulates most human thoughts, feelings, and actions. Because of this, damage to the brain is very likely to be reflected in behavioral symptoms, e.g., expressive aphasia resulting from injury to Broca's area (Mohr, 1976), Parkinsonism as a result of dopaminergic neuronal system dysfunction (Yahr, 1989), and gait disturbance in bilateral frontal lobe disease (Gilman, 1989). The knowledge of predictable relationships between brain and behavior in many instances allows Psychology and Medicine to approach the problem of studying the brain through a combination of deductive reasoning (‘tracing back’ from behavior) and inductive problem-solving (proposing and testing hypotheses generated in the course of the clinical process). Because the brain is not easily accessible to direct observation, behavioral methods represent important and effective approaches to clinical problem-solving and diagnosis.

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  Clinical Psychology

  A Global Perspective

  • Stefan G. Hofmann, Stefan G. Hofmann(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  Unfortunately for Mary, there is no current treatment that can cure Alzheimer's disease. However, for other disorders for which there are known interventions, neuropsychological assessment can also be used to track progress and to suggest specific treatments. For example, individuals with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH), a condition that causes an abnormal buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain, can be treated with surgical intervention. Patients with NPH are often evaluated before and after a surgical intervention to help determine if the treatment was successful (e.g., Solana, Sahuquillo, Junqué, Quintana, & Poca, 2012). Results from a neuropsychological evaluation can also be used to suggest specific interventions that build on a patient's strengths. As an example, patients with memory deficits can be placed in rehabilitation programs that teach skills that rely on their other domains of intact cognitive functioning to improve their adaptive functioning (e.g., Greenaway, Hanna, Lepore, & Smith, 2008).

  The practice and use of neuropsychological assessment varies across different parts of the world. As a field, clinical Neuropsychology is most “professionalized” within the United States and Europe, and the major textbooks, testing instruments, and research in the field reflect a predominantly Western and individualistic cultural lens. The growth of forensic Neuropsychology, a specialty area within the field that focuses on neuropsychological assessment of criminal or civil litigants, underscores this bias.

  Classification of Behavior and Cognition in Neuropsychological Assessment

  As previously reviewed, neuropsychological assessment includes evaluating for changes in a person's patterns of thinking or behaving that might reflect signs of underlying brain injury or disease. In clinical practice, neuropsychologists have found it helpful to conceptualize patterns of behavior within a framework that includes three broad functional systems. These three systems include: (a) cognition, which is the information handling aspect of behavior; (b), emotionality, which concerns feelings and motivation, and (c), executive functions, which have to do with how behavior is expressed (Lezak, Howieson, Bigler, & Tranel, 2012). Each of these systems consists of several narrower constructs that collectively contribute to behavior and can be examined more closely within the context of a neuropsychological assessment. We review some of the most important constructs within each of the three broad systems below:

  Cognition

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  Clinical Neuropsychology

  A Practical Guide to Assessment and Management for Clinicians

  • Laura H. Goldstein, Jane E. McNeil, Laura H. Goldstein, Jane E. McNeil(Authors)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  The answer to this question depends on the setting in which the neuropsychologist is working. The two main areas are academia and clinical (or applied), and there are critical differences between the two. Neuropsychologists in academia drive our understanding of the relationship between brains and behaviour. New ideas regarding brain–behaviour relationships start as theories (e.g., the ‘theory of mind’ theory), which lead to the development of testable hypotheses and new methodologies (e.g., the ‘Sally Ann test’). The hypotheses are investigated under rigorous conditions and validated or modified as the results indicate. Gradually, such theories evolve into accepted paradigms and conceptual frameworks that improve our understanding of neurotypical development or our awareness of how known neurodevelopmental abnormalities may give rise to behavioural dysfunction. Eventually, research tasks may become standardized and commercially available to clinicians.

  Neuropsychologists in clinical practice can be found in acute care settings, where their assessments contribute to the monitoring and management of medical conditions known to impact neurocognitive functioning (e.g., stroke, metabolic disorders, brain tumours). Specialist advice regarding commissioning of child Neuropsychology services, particularly within neurological settings, is available from the British Psychological Society (2004).

  Although children's mental health services have only recently begun to embed neuropsychological thinking and evaluations into the diagnostic process and intervention planning (Humphreys, 2006), the contribution of Neuropsychology to child mental health can be traced to the Isle of Wight study in the 1960s, one of the first epidemiological investigations of child psychiatric disorders. This study documented the link between brain dysfunction and increased risk of psychiatric disorder (Graham and Rutter, 1968). Interestingly, the relationship between cognitive dysfunction in childhood and the risk of mental illness in adulthood

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  Psychological Aspects of Sport-Related Concussions

  • Gordon Bloom, Jeffrey Caron, Gordon A. Bloom, Jeffrey G. Caron(Authors)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  3 The role of Neuropsychology in understanding, assessing, and managing sport-related concussions Dave Ellemberg, Veronik Sicard, Adam Harrison, Jacob J. M. Kay, and Robert Davis Moore Introduction

  Neuropsychology is the scientific study of human brain functioning. Clinical neuropsychologists study how behavior and cognition are influenced by the brain’s functioning and are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of the behavioral and cognitive deficits caused by neurological disorders. Neuropsychologists have spearheaded the scientific and clinical research aimed at identifying the consequences of concussion, proper injury management, and the return to learn and play regimen (Ott, Bailey, & Broshek, 2018). They developed clinical assessment tools to identify cognitive deficits caused by concussion and to track injury recovery. With distinct training in brain-behavior relationships, psychological assessment, and psychometrics, neuropsychologists are uniquely qualified to evaluate an athlete’s cognitive, emotional, and psychological status following a concussion. In fact, in most Canadian provinces and territories, as well as in many states of the United States, the assessment of cognitive and psychological disorders caused by a neurological disorder is an act that is reserved to the clinical neuropsychologists.

  In recent years, the role of the clinical neuropsychologist in the assessment, treatment, and management of sport concussion has become more clearly defined as this domain of clinical practice has exploded. This has led to the emergence of a new discipline, known as sport Neuropsychology, with a clinician having an interdisciplinary training in clinical psychology, sport psychology, and Neuropsychology (Merz, Perry, & Ross, 2018). The critical role of the sports neuropsychologist has also contributed to the creation of the Sports Neuropsychology Society (SNS), a professional organization established in 2012. Its mission is “to advance the field of sports Neuropsychology, to generate and disseminate knowledge regarding brain-behavior relationships as it applies to sports, and to promote the welfare of athletes at all levels” (Sports Neuropsychology Society, 2017).

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  From Symptom to Synapse

  A Neurocognitive Perspective on Clinical Psychology

  • Jan Mohlman, Thilo Deckersbach, Adam Weissman, Jan Mohlman, Thilo Deckersbach, Adam Weissman(Authors)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  2Tools of the Neurocognitive Psychologist

  Christen M. Deveney

  Introduction

  Some have argued that psychiatric disorders should be considered brain disorders (Insel, 2011). Even if one disagrees with this sentiment and prefers to consider mental illnesses as disorders of behavior, the fact remains that all behaviors involve the brain. As such, studies of the brain are uniquely poised to specify core features of the disorders clinical psychologists observe and treat in the clinic. For example, neural and genetic measures have identified risk factors for psychiatric disorders (Gilbertson et al., 2002; Kong et al., in press) and are paving the way toward improved diagnostic systems by identifying both overlapping and distinct neural patterns across disorders (Brotman et al., 2010; Weissman, Chu, Reddy, & Mohlman, 2012). These measures also set the stage for more efficacious treatments by identifying neural changes following psychosocial treatments (Paquette et al., 2003), predictors of response to psychosocial and pharmacological interventions (Maslowsky et al., 2010; McClure et al., 2007 ; Pizzagalli, 2010; Siegle, Carter, & Thase, 2006), and even direct manipulations of brain activity to ameliorate the symptoms of the most severe and treatment-refractory patients (Kennedy et al., 2011; Mayberg et al., 2005).

  Understanding the neurocognitive approach (i.e., the merging of psychological and biological perspectives) to clinical psychology research requires greater literacy about these measures and is important for clinicians and researchers alike. For example, being able to conceptualize how the brain changes after cognitive behavioral therapy can help clinicians explain how treatment can mitigate disorders of the brain. Increasing awareness of cognitive training methods (Amir, Beard, Burns, & Bomyea, 2009) may allow clinicians to expand the types of treatments available for patients in and out of the clinic. Neurocognitive tools facilitate the study of processes occurring outside of conscious awareness or in populations unable to report their experience using traditional measures (e.g., self-report, behavioral). Finally, a better understanding of existing paradigms and techniques will facilitate collaborations between clinician-researchers and experts in these biological measures. In particular, clinicians can help basic researchers design clinically relevant experiments, identify clinical issues that may be related to the biological findings, or suggest behavioral and clinical avenues for identifying likely biological differences.

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  Research Methods for Cognitive Neuroscience

  • Aaron Newman(Author)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications Ltd

    (Publisher)

  1 The Organization of the Brain and How We Study It

  Learning Objectives

  After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

  • Define the scope and objectives of the field of cognitive neuroscience.
  • Identify the fundamental types of cells in the brain, and how they communicate with each other.
  • Describe the basic organization of the brain, across micro-, meso-, and macro-anatomical scales.
  • Explain the value of measuring behaviour in understanding both cognition and brain activity.
  • List the various brain imaging and stimulation methodologies covered in this book, and categorize them based on the type of data they measure.

  Introduction

  Cognitive neuroscience

  is the field of study aimed at understanding how the brain produces thoughts, emotions, and behaviour. By and large, this field focuses on human beings specifically, and – given the general reluctance that most humans express to having their heads cut open – relies primarily on non-invasive methods for characterizing brain activity and structure. The field of cognitive neuroscience is quite new; although humans have a long-standing interest in the thoughts and behaviours of themselves and others, the idea that ‘There could be a human neurobiology of normal cognitive processes’ (Gazzaniga, 2018) was realized only three decades ago. Specifically, in 1988 a group of researchers from Washington University and the University of Oregon published the first studies of human cognition using

  positron emission tomography (PET)

  – a form of brain imaging that allowed researchers to localize changes in blood flow in the brain, using radioactively labelled oxygen (Petersen, Fox, Posner, Mintun, & Raichle, 1988; Posner, Petersen, Fox, & Raichle, 1988). Prior to this, the only ways to study brain activity in healthy, living humans employed EEG, which involves measuring brain electrical activity via electrodes attached to the outside of the head (or a related technique, MEG; however, this was restricted to a very small number of labs). Although as we will see in this book EEG is an extremely valuable tool, it does not provide accurate information as to where

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  eBook - ePub

  Neuroepidemiology

  • (Author)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • Elsevier

    (Publisher)

  Efforts to explain the connection between our brain and behavior extend as far back as the early 17th century (Castro-Caldas and Grafman, 2000). In an era when neuroimaging was not yet on our technologic horizon, Franz Joseph Gall was the first to hypothesize explanations for observed behavioral differences between his schoolmates. Gall first linked cerebral lesions with aphasia or language difficulties (Gall, 1809), establishing a foundation for the enormous efforts made by Bouillaud and Broca on functional localization, yielding a greater breadth of knowledge on the specialized functions of certain areas of the brain. The field of clinical Neuropsychology became a practical necessity during the World War I era, when the co-occurrence of brain injuries and behavioral issues among war veterans became more apparent (Lishman, 1968, 1973, 1988), therefore increasing the demand for rehabilitation programs and prompting initiatives to establish Neuropsychology training programs. Neuropsychologic assessment forms the basis of the field of clinical Neuropsychology. Neuropsychologic assessment is the use of standardized behavioral or cognitive tasks to detect impairments in cognition to make inferences about brain function. The utility of information from a neuropsychologic assessment can be comprehensive, from screening to diagnoses and, most importantly, treatment. The principal component of a complete neuropsychologic assessment involves the examination of several domains of cognition, including memory, executive function, psychomotor speed/attention, visuospatial construction, and language. Each of these cognitive domains is predominantly mapped or localized to specific regions or networks of the brain to infer brain functions. Imaging modalities have complemented the role of traditional neuropsychologic testing in the localization of overt brain pathologies

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  Traumatic Brain Injury Rehabilitation

  Practical Vocational, Neuropsychological, and Psychotherapy Interventions

  • Robert Fraiser, Robert Fraiser(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  Principles of Behavioral Neurology. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company. A closely related field to Neuropsychology is behavioral neurology. Composed primarily of neurologists, the field parallels and overlaps a great deal with Neuropsychology due to the fact that both fields examine brain-behavior relationships. This text covers in depth the neurophysiology of brain function and dysfunction, and provides a clinical approach to evaluating various neurological conditions. A fine description of neuropsychological testing of older adults appears in this text, and is an example of how behavioral neurology and Neuropsychology cover common professional and academic ground.

  Kolb, B. and Whishaw, I.Q. (1990). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Third Edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. Understanding basic neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the brain is foundational to understanding brain-behavior relationships. Kolb and Whishaw’s text provides such a foundation for those interested in examining the central nervous system in greater detail. This text is frequently used in graduate training programs as an introductory text to the physiological aspects of brain functioning. It is well-illustrated and easily read by the non-neuropsychologist.

  Prigatano, G.P. and Schacter, D.L. (Eds.). (1991). Awareness of Deficit After Brain Injury: Clinical and Theoretical Issues. New York: Oxford University Press. Neurobehavioral syndromes complicate the process of brain injury rehabilitation and add another dimension to the process of vocational reentry for the client with brain injury. These authors describe well what is known as deficit awareness syndromes in a range of brain disorders, including traumatic brain injury. This is a thoughtful volume that not only covers critical research issues but also clearly describes the clinical dilemmas that arise when working with an individual who evidences these problems.

  Luria, A.R. (1973). The Working Brain: An Introduction to Neuropsychology

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  Fundamentals of Brain and Behavior

  An Introduction to Human Neuroscience

  • William J. Ray(Author)
  • 2024(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  McGurk effect. Our brain uses the information available to make sense of our experience of the world.

  In this chapter we want to introduce you to two separate lines of discovery that have come to influence the neurosciences today. In other chapters we will discuss brain imaging techniques and genetics, both of which are critical to the study of the brain today. We begin in this chapter with the historical study of the brain. We will then discuss the role of evolution in understanding human behavior and experience. Although in the early days of psychology, there was an interest in evolution, the topic was largely ignored for most of the 20th century.

  Historical Considerations in Understanding Brain and Behavior

  Psychological science and the neurosciences seek to describe and understand human behavior and experience. In fact, as humans, we have a long history of trying to understand ourselves. At this point in our history of understanding brain and behavior, we are beginning to see an integration of traditional neuroscience which focused on molecular and cellular processes and the psychological sciences which focused on human behavior and experience (Kandel & Shadlen, 2021 ).

  In this section, you will be introduced to some of the historical conceptions that have influenced the study of brain and behavior in the United States (see Kandel, Koester, Mack, & Siegelbaum, 2021 for more information). A more complete history would include historical developments in China, India, Africa, and the Middle East. For example, an Egyptian text referred to as the Edwin Smith Papyrus dates to around 1600 BC. This was one of the earliest documents that suggested different brain areas are involved in different processes. Overall, it is a medical text describing some 48 case studies and can be seen on the US National Institutes of Health website (https://wayback.archive-it.org/7867/20190220142516/https://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm

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